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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



One Hundred 
Lessons in Agriculture 

with 

Practical Problems 



By 
Aretas W. Nolan, A. M. 

Associate Professor of Agricultural Education, 
West Virginia University 




Chicago 
Row, Peterson & Company 



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^""ii 



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Copyright, 1911, by 
AKETAS W. NOLAN 



iv 



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©CI.A297827 



TO 

MY FATHER AND MOTHER, 

WHO ALL THEIR LIVES 

HAVE DWELT AMONG THE FIELDS, 

IS THIS BOOK DEDICATED. 



PREFACE. 

The preparation of this book is an effort to combine 
in convenient form the discussions, directions for labo- 
ratory and field exercises, note-book work, and farm 
arithmetic, which the author has found most practical 
and helpful in teaching elementary agriculture in rural 
schools. 

It has been the aim of the author to select from the 
vast field of agricultural knowledge and practice such 
subject-matter, materials, and methods as the teacher 
in the one-room country school, in the grammar grades 
of a graded school, or in the beginning years of a high 
school, may find easily practical, within the range of 
the pupil's understanding, and full of profitable inter- 
est and educational value. It is a text-book and manual 
combined for the purpose of leading away from the 
usual text-book method of teaching to the method of 
first-hand contact with the real things of agriculture. 
The fields, the pastures, the groves, the orchards, and 
the gardens, are the real text-books, — this book is only 
a "friendly guide-post." If the work is not conducted 
by means of real things, the educational value is lost, 
and the information given not permanently retained. 

Many of the lessons are followed by a set of practical 
farm problems. These problems have a definite relation 

5 



6 PREFACE 

to the subject-matter which they follow, as well as a 
close relation to farm life. Most of these problems were 
prepared by Professor Hatch of the University of Wis- 
consin, to whom we make grateful acknowledgment. 

The lessons are arranged in the order of actual farm 
operations and interests, during a year on the farm, 
and the teacher in the public schools may easily adapt 
them to local needs, beginning with any month of the 
year. The seasonal sequence of subject matter in school 
agriculture is both pedagogical and practical. Illustra- 
tive material is easily obtained, the interest of the pupils 
is at once awakened, and cooperation with the farm ac- 
tivities of the community is natural and inevitable. 

The Author. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

1. Read from other texts the subject-matter treated 
in these lessons. 

2. Collect beforehand the materials needed for the 
practical exercises, and have everything ready for the 
recitation. 

3. Ask the pupils to assist in collecting the materials, 
and have them perform the experiments whenever 
possible. 

4. Make many excursions for observations of farm- 
ing methods. Bring the class to the material when the 
material cannot be brought to the class. But always 
obtain permission from the owner of the farm upon 
which excursions are made. 

5. Have a school garden if possible. 

6. Write to your State Agricultural Experiment 
Station, the State College of Agriculture, and to the 
Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C, for 
information, bulletins, and seeds. 

7. Require each pupil to keep a permanent agri- 
cultural note-book in which to write a neat pen-and-ink 
record of each lesson. The work of recording the re- 
sults of the practical exercises gives the pupil some- 
thing definite to do. 

8. Have the lesson in agriculture the last period of 

7 



8 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

the day, and there will be better opportunity for prac- 
tical work. Some of the lessons of the text may serve 
for several school lessons. 

9. Relate the work in agriculture to the home farms 
whenever possible. Make "home projects" the basis of 
many recitations. 

10. Make the "Year on the Farm" the work of the 
school year in agriculture. 



TABLE OF CONTEXTS 

September 
r,Essox. Page. 

I. — Selecting and Laying Out the Farm 13 

II. — Farm Buildings 17 

HI. — Map Studies of Life — A-field 22 

IV. — Insects That Injure the Crops 24 

V. — The Grasshopper 27 

YI. — The Butterfly 30 

VII. — The Fly 32 

VIII. — The Bug 34 

IX. — The Dragon Fly 36 

X. — Fhe Bee 37 

XL — The Beetle 39 

XII.— Plant Diseases 42 

XIII. — The WHE.VT Crop 44 

October 

XIV. — Selecting and Storing Seed Corn 40 

XV. — The Best Corn in the Co.m.munity 55 

XVI. — Collection of Farm I'roducts 56 

XVII. — Fruit Growing 57 

XVIIL— XUT Crops 64 

XIX. — Classification of Fak.m Crops 65 

November 

XX. — The Stock on the Far.m 67 

XXI. — The Driving Horse 70 

XXII. — The Draft Horse 74 

XXIII. — The Dairy Cow 78 

XXIV.— The Beef Cow 81 

XXV.— Fhe Sheep 83 

XXVL— The Hog 86 

XXVII. — Feeds and Feeding 91 

XXVIII. — Test for Food Compounds 94 

XXIX. — Determining Rations for Farm Animals 95 

XXX.— The Dairy 100 

XXXI. — Composition of Milk 104 

XXXII. — The Babcock Test 107 

XXXIII. — Poultry 110 

XXXIV. — A Study of Feathers 114 

XXXV.— The Egg. - , 116 

9 



10 CONTENTS 

December 

Lesson. Page. 

XXXVI. — Farm Accounts 118 

XXXVII. — The Year's Account dy Months 121 

XXXVIII. — Crop Records 122 

XXXIX. — Record of a Good Crop Rotation 123 

XL. — Comparison of Agriculture Products 126 

XLI. — An Assessment of Farm Values 127 

XLII. — Farm Machinery 127 

XLIII. — Agricultural Outlook — West Virginia as a Type 

St.ate 129 

January 

XLIV. — Country Life Conveniences 131 

XLV. — The Farmer's Reading 133 

XLVL— Soil 135 

XLVII. — Plant Foods 143 

XLVIII. — Fertilizers 149 

February 

XLIX.— Drainage 158 

L. — Fences 162 

LI. — Knot Tying in Ropes 165 

LII. — A Hot-bed Garden 167 

LIII. — Rural Free Mail Delivery 169 

LI V. — Agricultural Societies 172 

LV. — The Grange 177 

March 

LVI. — Structure of Seeds 181 

LVII. — Germination of Seeds and Growth of Seedlings 185 

LVIII. .lUDGING AND SCORING SEED CORN 191 

LIX. — Testing Seed Corn 197 

LX. — rHE Plant and Water 201 

LXI. — The Root System of the Plant 205 

LXII. — Clover and Other Legumes 208 

LXIIL— Crop Rotation 213 

LXIV. — Spraying Fruit Trees 221 

LX V. — Pruning Fruit Trees 221 

April 

LXVI.— Grafting Fruit Trees 226 

LXVII. — Plant Propagation fro.m Cuttings 229 

LXVIII. — Propagation of Raspberries 232 

LXIX. — School Gardening 234 

LXX. — Home Gardening 238 



CONTENTS 11 

Lesson. Page. 

LXXI. — Beautifying Home and School Grounds 244 

LXXII. — Farm Forestry 249 

LXXIII. — Spraying for Codling Moth AND Fungous Diseases. 259 
LXXIV. — Pi^ANTiNG Corn 263 

May 

LXXV. — Cultivation of Corn 267 

LXXVI. — Tilling the Soil 272 

LXXVII. — Transplanting • 277 

LXXVIII. — Potatoes 279 

LXXIX. — Tomatoes 283 

LXXX. — Plant Leaves 286 

LXXXI. — The Flower 288 

LXXXII. — Plant Stems 291 

June 

LXXXIIL— Weeds 295 

LXXXIV. — Truck Crops 299 

LXXXV. — The Value of Birds to Agriculture 303 

LXXXVL — The Toad, the Farmer's Friend 306 

LXXXVII. — Cutting Clover and Alfalfa 309 

LXXXVIII. — Five Lines of Agricultural Improvement 312 

July 

LXXXIX. — Roads and Road-making 314 

XC. — Timothy Hay 118 

XCL — Pastures 321 

XCIL — Dry Farming 323 

August 

XCIII. — Alfalfa 326 

XCIV. — Budding Fruit Trees 329 

XCV. — No Two Plants Alike 331 

XCVL — The Water Supply 333 

XCVn. — The United States Weather Service 335 

XCVin. — Conservation of Natural Resources -. 338 

XCIX. — -Agriculture and Education 340 

C. — The Farm Home 342 

Appendix Notes 345 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 
A YEAR ON THE FARM 



SEPTEMBER 

LESSON I 

SELECTING AND LAYING OUT THE FAEM 

A forty-acre farm. — Let us suppose that it is the 
first day of September, and that we have moved into a 
new liome upon a forty-acre farm. Our farm is square 
— 80 rods by 80 rods — and the buildings are located at 
one corner of it. We shall do general farming. Our 
market is five miles away, and we have good roads. The 
farm is level, with the exception of a V-shaped valley 
extending across it from north to south, dividing the 
farm into two nearly equal parts. This valley furnishes 
excellent drainage facilities and an abundance of good 
spring water throughout the year. The soil of our 
farm is a rich, sandy loam for the most part, above a 
clay subsoil, and is in good physical condition. The 
fields are free from stumps, stones and waste places. 

There is an orchard of five acres, a wood-lot of five 
acres, and the rest of the farm, with the exception of 
the valley running through it, is tillable. 

13 



14 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUBE 

The climate is temperate, ranging from zero to 90 
degrees above zero. The climatie conditions do not in- 
terfere with stock raising, and the general healthful- 
ness of the place is assured. The local markets, the 
school and church facilities, the character of the neigh- 
bors, are all excellent factors in helping us to decide 
upon this farm. 

We shall be very busy all the year, but we shall find 
great pleasure in our work. The planning, the build- 
ing, the sowing and reaping, and the beautifying of 
our home will furnish us interesting work for many 
years ; in fact, the work will never be finished, and 
therein is the joy of it all. 

The month's work. — September is the month for 
school to begin, and the interests of the farm will enter 
largely into the activities and lessons of the school. 
Busy days are ahead of us. Very little planting is to 
be done at this season, aside from wheat sowing, but 
we are in the midst of harvest, when we reap the 
rewards of the year's labor, and begin to plan for the 
coming winter. The great work of this month is the 
sowing of the wheat, and we shall learn of this great 
crop during the month. The second crop of clover is to 
be cut for seed. Perhaps the wheat from the July 
harvest has been stacked and is to be thrashed. During 
this month we shall find many weeds on the farm going 
to seed, and these should be cut down. The hungry 
insects will continue their ravages and demand our 
attention 



SELECTING AND LAYING OUT FARM 



15 



Practical Exercises 

1. JReport on the Home Farm 
Make a report in class upon the home farm, using 
the following topics : 

1. Kind of farming done. 

2. Size and shape of farm. 




Courtesy of 0. J. Kern. 
Fig. 2. At the Grove School 

3. Surface condition — level or hilly. 

4. General fertility condition. 

5. Drainage. 

6. "Water supply. 

7. Advantages or disadvantages of the location — 
market, schools, neighbors, etc. 



16 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



8. Improvements — house, farm buildings, etc. 

9. Trees and landscape features. 
10. Climate and healthfulness. 

S. Map of Home Farm 
Each pupil in the class should draw a map of the 
home farm, shoAving fields, woodlot, orchards, gardens 
and buildings. Draw to a scale of inches. Write the 
report and draw the map as the first exercises in your 
agricultural note-book. 




Fig. 3. Diagram of 40-Acre Farm 



FARM BUILDINGS 17 

LESSON II 

FARM BUILDINGS 

Location. — On our farm we have a good house, barn, 
granary, silo, carriage house, poultry house, and farm 
laboratory. Attention has been given to the proper 
arrangement of these buildings, within themselves and 
in relation to each other. The barn and other farm 
houses are located back of the dwelling house, and the 
vegetable garden is convenient to the kitchen, yet well 
hidden from the front view of the house. The dwelling 
house is situated upon an elevation sufficient to afford 
good drainage, several rods back from the road, leaving 
room for a pretty lawn in front. A drive leads from 
the road to the barn, passing through the barn-lot, con- 
venient to the side of the house. A clean, dry gravel 
walk leads from the house to the barn. A silo is 
attached to the barn, and the granary is near by. One 
of the most important out-buildings on our farm is the 
silo. The importance of silage as a feeding stuff is 
growing more apparent, but silage will not keep well 
in a poorly constructed silo. The silo must be air-tight, 
strong, perfectly smooth on the inside, and placed on 
a strong, solid foundation. 

The farm workshop. — Every farmer should have a 
building, or a room in some building, in which he can 
do experimental work with plants, soils, etc., and in 
which he can do wood-working, forging in iron, and 
general shop work, A shop well equipped with car- 
penter's tools, a forge and anvil, a work-bench and its 



18 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

equipments, would save the farmer many dollars and 
much time in the repairing of his implements and 
buildings. This same workshop might be provided with 
apparatus for seed-testing, fruit-tree pruning and graft- 
ing, soil testing and analyzing, and with various chemi- 
cals and apparatus used in experimental work with 
plants and animals. 

A room so equipped on every farm would furnish 
interesting and profitable work during the winter 
months, and the results of the experiments in these lab- 
oratories might be profitably applied on the farm. 

The following is a list of materials and furnishings 
that might be useful in the farm laboratory: 

1. Work-bench and carpenter's tools. 

2. Forge and anvil, with necessary tools accom- 
panying. 

3. Medicine case with drugs for animals; and chem- 
icals, such as formalin, sulphuric acid, ammonia, 
copper sulphate, lime, sulphur, lead arsenate, paris 
green, hellebore, phosphoric acid, potash, sodium 
nitrate, etc., etc. 

4. Tight case for various seeds. 

5. Boxes of clay, sand and humus soils. 

6. Table for general experimental work. 

7. Water supply and means of heating the room. 
The pupils and teacher may add other materials to 

the above list, and, as a part of the work of this lesson, 
the pupils should draw the ground floor plan of such a 
room as described above, and indicate in their plan 



FAEM BUILDINGS 



19 



where they would place the different furnishings of 

the shop. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 

No. 32.— Silos and Silage. 

No. 126. — Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. 

Measurements 
Rules. 

1. To find the area of a triangle multiply the base by one-half 
the height. 

2. To find the circumference of a circle multiply the diameter 
by 3 1-7. 

3. To find the area of a circle multiply the square of the 
radius by 3 1-7. 

4. The square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to 
the sum of the squares of the other sides. 

Note: Make a drawing before attempting to solve any of the 
following problems. 




Pig. 4. Model Farm Buildings 

Problems 

1. How many feet of inch lumber will be required 
to build a pig pen six feet wide, four feet from peak 
to ground, and eight feet long? (See rules 1 and 4.) 



20 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

2. How many feet of inch lumber will be needed 
to board up the gables of a barn thirty feet wide, the 
peaks being twelve feet above the eaves? 

3. How much lumber will it take to cover a corn 
crib with four-inch slats, placed one inch apart, the 
crib being twenty-four feet long, six feet wide at the 
bottom, eight feet at the top, eight feet to the eaves, 
and the peak three feet above the eaves ? 

4. How long will the rafters need to be for this 
crib if they are to project one foot? How many feet 
of 2x4 rafters will be required if they are placed two 
feet apart? 

5. How many feet of 2x4 studding will be needed 
if they are placed the same distance apart 1 How many 
feet of roof boards will be required if they are allowed 
to project one foot at each end I 

6. How many cubic feet must a bin contain in order 
to hold a thousand bushels? Make a list of convenient 
dimensions for such a bin. 

7. How many feet of two-inch plank will be re- 
quired to build a cylindrical tank fourteen feet across 
and two feet deep ? What will be the cost of the lumber 
at $30 per thousand? 

8. How many feet of band iron will it require to 
make three hoops for this tank? 

9. How many feet of inch lumber will be required 
to cover the inner wall of a "round" silo twenty-one 
feet across and eighteen feet high? How many feet 
of two-inch plank will be needed for a cover? What 
will be the cost of all this lumber at $25 per thousand. 



FARM BUILDINGS 



21 



10. What will it cost to put a cement floor in this 
silo at 10 cents per square foot? 

11. How many 2x4 studdings eighteen feet long 
and placed one foot apart will be required, and what 
will be their cost at $24 per thousand? 

12. What will it cost for the lumber to floor a barn 
forty by sixty feet with two and one-half inch plank 
at $18 per thousand? 




Fig. 5. Barn amd Silos 



13. The peak of this barn is twelve feet higher than 
the eaves. What will inch lumber for sheeting the 
gables cost at $24 per thousand. 

14. The rafters are made of 2x4, and twenty-seven 
inches long, placed eighteen inches apart. How much 
will they cost at $20 per thousand. 

15. What will be the cost of the sheeting for the 
roof at $16 per thousand if the roof projects two feet 
at each end? 



32 LESSONS IN AGKICULTURE 

16. What will it cost to shingle this roof with 
shingles worth $3.25 per thousand, laying thein five 
inches to the weather and allowing for a double course 
at the eaves ? 

17. This building is placed on a wall twelve inches 
thick and eight feet high. "What is the cost of the 
stone for same at $5 per cord? 

18. What will it cost to fence a field sixty rods 
long and forty-five rods wide with a five wire fence, 
posts one rod apart, worth 5 cents each, staples 6 cents 
per pound (200 to the pound), wire weighing one 
pound to the rod, worth $4.50 per cwt., and labor 
amounting to $6. 

19. What will it cost to build a five board fence 
around the same field, using twelve-foot boards, six 
inches wide, and worth $16 per thousand, posts 5 
cents each, nails and labor, $15. 

LESSON III 

MAP STUDIES OF LIFE AFIELD 

School out-of-doors. — Boys and girls who have en- 
joyed the free life out of doors all summer may not 
relish the prospect of sitting indoors during the pleas- 
ant September days studying from books, while all is 
life and activity on the farms without. Hence let us 
begin by bringing some of the life of the farm into 
the schoolroom, and carrying some of our school prob- 
lems out to the farm for answer. The fields, the woods, 
the roadsides, the brooks and the skies shall be our 



MAP STUDIES OF LIFE AFIELD 33 

books when we are out of school, and we shall enjoy 
our hours in school, telling each other what we have 
seen and learned in the big books of nature. In all 



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Fig. 6. A Boy's Collection 

our study of agriculture let us learn from real things, 
and not depend altogether upon books. 

Practical Exercises 

1. Make measurement of a tract of land containing 
five or ten acres, and draw a map of the same to an 



24 LESSONS IN AC4RICULTURE 

accurate scale. Place in this map the creeks, springs, 
buildings, etc. 

2. Collect bottles of the different kinds of soil found 
on the tract, and bring to school. 

3. Make a list of all the useful plants growing on 
the plot. 

4. Make a list of all the weeds or useless plants 
known on the plot. 

5. Make a list of all the domestic and wild animals 
seen, 

6. Make a list of all the birds and insects observed 
from time to time. 

This work may continue through many weeks, and 
the pupils should keep a neat and accurate record in 
their permanent note-books of the observations on their 
tracts of land. 

LESSON IV 

INSECTS THAT INJUKE THE CROPS 

"The farmer may prepare the soil ever so well, he 
may fertilize with the greatest of care, he may culti- 
vate thoroughly, the weather conditions may be favor- 
able, and yet he may lose all or a portion of his crop 
through the attacks of insects and the ravages of plant 
diseases." (Hatch.) 

Extent of injury. — Insects destroy our crops to the 
value of millions of dollars. The farmer has learned 
to fight some of these pests successfully, and yet too 
little attention is paid by the average farmer to methods 



INSECTS THAT INJURE CROPS 



25 



of combating insects as well as plant diseases. There 
is much to learn about insects before we can hope to 
control them successfully. We must learn when and 
where the insects lay their eggs, when the eggs hatch, 
and into what forms they develop, and what they feed 
upon. Some people make fun of boys and girls when 
they see them hunting and studying "bugs," but if 
somebody did not hunt and study bugs, they would 
eat and drive us all out of house and home. 

Life history of an insect. — There are usually four 
stages in the life history of an insect — the egg stage, 
the grub or caterpil- 
lar stage, the resting 
or pupa stage, and 
the full-groAvn insect. 
The egg is laid by 
the full-grown insect 
in the ground or in 
any part of the plant. 
The eggs hatch into 
what we usually call 
a grub or w^orm. The 
grub of most insects 
is a great eater, and it is in this stage that much dam- 
age is done to our plants. After it has eaten and grown 
fat, it hides itself and goes into a pupa or resting stage. 
From this pod-like affair it emerges as a full-grown in- 
sect, ready to lay eggs and repeat the life cycle. Some in- 
sects, such as grasshoppers, do not go into the resting 




Fig. 7. Section of a Tree-Truxk 

Showing Gvpsy Moth Lauvak 

Ascending 



26 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

stage, but grow their wings as they hop about in search 
of food. 

Feeding habits of insects. — Insects may be divided 
into two classes, according to their habits of injury to 
plants: the leaf-eating insects and the sap-sucking in- 
sects. These habits of the insects furnish the farmer a 
clue to methods of destroying them. If he finds that 
a certain insect is eating the leaves of his plants, he 
can spray them with a poison, such as lead arsenate, 
and the insects will eat the poison and die. If the 
insect that is injuring the plants has a beak which it 
uses to suck the sap from the tree or plant, without 
eating the leaves, then the farmer can spray with lime- 
sulphur or a mixture of kerosene and soapsuds, which 
will stop the insect's breathing pores or destroy its 
body. Directions for making these mixtures are given 
elsewhere in this book. 

The body of insects. — Insects are so called because 
they are "in sections." There are three main sec- 
tions of an insect's body — the head, thorax, and abdo- 
men. The head is provided with a pair of feelers, a 
pair of strong jaws (or a sucking tube), and two com- 
pound or two simple eyes. Three pairs of legs and 
usually two pairs of wings are attached to the thorax. 
The abdomen is the back part of the body, made up of 
segments. Insects breathe through little holes in their 
sides. In the practical exercises which follow you will 
note all these points of structures in various insects. 

Note. The practical exercises on insects will be 
given as separate lessons and so numbered. 



THE GBASSHOPPER 37 

LESSON V 

1. THE GRASSHOPPER 

General directions. — In making these practical 
studies of insects, an example of each of the common 
orders of insects will be taken up. The pupils should 
provide their own material, and bring the insects to 
the class for study. The insect net illustrated below 
will facilitate the catching of winged insects like the 
grasshopper, butterfly, bee, etc. Bottles and cans may 
be used to catch such insects as the beetles and bugs. 




Fig. 8. Insect Net 

A hand lens to magnify the insect body will be found 
helpful. A sharp penknife, a pair of sharp-pointed scis- 
sors, two large needles mounted in wooden holders, and 
a pair of sharp eyes are essentials in the study of 
insects. 

Field and laboratory studies. — In making this study 
of the insects, the pupils should first draw a whole 
body view of the insect, and then make such notes and 



28 LESSONS IN AGKICULTURE 

answer such questions as are asked in the k\sson out 
lines. Determine all answers from observation. 

1. Observe in the field : 
Its method of locomotion. 
Its protective coloration. 

Its enemies. Its sounds. Its haunts. Its food. 

2. With the living insect, try to find the breathing 
spiracle, just above the base of the middle legs. Watch 
the opening and closing of the lips of this breathing 
pore. Put a grasshopper under a glass and see if it 




JNB 

Fig. 9. DiFFEUEXTiAL Locust — After S.\nderson 

will eat grass or leaves. Perhaps it has spit "tobacco 
juice" on you. Wliy does it do this? How many times 
the length of its body can it jump? 

3. In what ways do the hind pair of legs differ from 
the others? 

Of what advantage are the hooks and spines on 
the legs? 

Count the number of joints on each leg. 

4. Study the wings. How does the front pair com- 
pare with the hind jjair? How are the hind wings 
folded ? By rubbing the upper and lower wings to- 
gether, the grasshopper sounds are made. Make a 
drawing of the Avings. 



THE GRASSHOPPER 29 

5. Study the mouth parts. These are the most dif- 
ficult of all the external parts to see. Find the fol- 
lowing parts : 

(a) The upper lip, a two-lobed lab rum. 

(b) A pair of blackish horny mandibles, covered by 
the upper lip. 

(e) A pair of jointed maxillae below the mandibles, 
(d) A two-lobed lower lip, the labium. 

6. The female has at the end of the abdomen, four 
points called the ovipositor. These are used for making 
an opening into the ground to receive the eggs. Young 
grasshoppers are called nymphs, and resemble the 
adults in every way except that their wings are unde- 
veloped. 

7. Count the segments of the abdomen. Observe 
on each side of the abdomen a groove, and just above 
it a row of breathing spiracles. Observe the thin mem- 
braneous depression on the first segment of the abdo- 
men. This is supposed to be the ear. 

8. Observe the eye. Perhaps you can see that it is 
made up of many divisions. The grasshopper has two 
compound eyes and three simple eyes. Try to find 
these. 

9. What other insects belong to the grasshopper 
family? Are they injurious on the farm? How? 

Note. — For killing insects, prepare a cyanide bottle 
as follows: Break potassium cyanide into small pieces 
and put into the bottom of a wide-mouthed bottle. 
Avoid the deadly poisonous fumes. Poiir over the 



30 LESSONS IX AGEICULTUEE 

pieces just enough water to cover them. Add plaster of 
paris until the water is absorbed. Leave unstoppered 
until the contents are dried ; then cork tightly. Insects 
dropped into the bottle will die. Keep the bottle from 
children. 

LESSON VI 

2. THE BUTTERFLY 

Every country boy or girl knows the white cabbage 
butterfly, and its associate, the sulphur butterfly. 
With a freshly killed specimen, take up the study as 
follows : 

1. INIake a drawing of the whole body, showing the 
characteristic markings. 

2. How many segments to the body? What are the 
appendages from these segments? 

3. How do the legs compare with those of tiie grass- 
hopper ? 

4. Write a descriptive sentence about each of the 
following points of the wings: Action, shape, overlap- 
ping, scale-covering, and vein-structure. 

5. How many segments to the abdomen? Are they 
like those of the grasshopper? 

6. Examine the mouth of the butterfly. Find the 
coiled tube which it uses to obtain the nectar from the 
flower.. With a pin uncoil it and note its length. 

7. Answer the following points on the observation 
of a live butterfly : 



THE BUTTERFLY 31 

(a) Its rnanner of flight. 

(b) The kind of food, and the manner of feeding. 

(c) The natural enemies of the butterfly. 

(d) The position of the wings when at rest. 

8. What is the damage done by the cabbage but- 
terfly ? 

It should be remembered that the common toad is 
the best friend we have in the garden to rid the ca])bage 
of this pest. 

9. What is the life-history of the butterfly? This 
question will be asked in connection with all the insects 
we shall study ; 
therefore a gen- 
eral answer should 
probably be given 
to make this point 
clear. The cab- 
bage butterfly lays 

its eggs usually on 

J, , "„ Fig. 10. Cabbage Butterfli 

the lower surface 

of cabbage leaves. They are small and are pale-yellowish 

in color. These hatch into larva, the so-called cabbage 

worms. After the worms have fed upon the cabbage leaves 

for some time, they spin from their mouths a silken pod 

around themselves; this pod is called the pupa. The pupa 

is usually found on old fences or posts. In a short time the 

pupa ruptures, and a full-grown cabbage butterfly crawls 

out, dries its wings and flies away to begin the life history 

of a new generation. 




32 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

10. If you can get a moth compare it with the but- 
terfly as follows: 

(a) Difference in the feelers (antenna^). 

(b) Manner of folding the wings when at rest. 

(c) Time of flying, day or night. 

(d) Comparative size of bodies. 

Note. — Butterflies and moths belong to this order 
of insects. 



LESSON VII 

3. THE FLY 

1. Make a drawing of the common house-fly. 

2. Write a sentence on each of the following points, 
based upon your own observation of a live fly: 

(a) The rapidity of the wing motion, 

(b) Its manner of eating. 

(c) Its favorite haunts. 

3. How many wings has the fly? Look under 
the wings and try to find the little white knobs, called 
the balancers. 

4. Note how rough and hairy the legs and feet of 
the fly are. Would they hold filth and dirt so that 
it could be carried? 

5. How does the abdomen of the fly compare with 
other insects we have studied? Count the segments of 
the abdomen. 

6. The life history of the fly family may be studied 




THE FLY 33 

easily in the schoolroom. Expose out of doors a bit of 

lean meat, so that the eggs may be laid upon it. The 

blue-bottle fly will lay eggs upon meat. Fill a tin can 

or box with sand, and on a chip in the center of it 

place the bit of meat with the eggs on it. Invert a 

glass tumbler over it, and push the rim of the tumbler 

down onto the sand to prevent the 

escape of offensive odors. In a few 

hours the eggs will hatch, and in a 

few days the larva will be fully 

grown. They will probably crawl 

under the chip to change into pupse. 

They may come out soon as adult 

flies, or they may remain over winter 

in this stage. The house fly lays ^^^- H- the fly 

its eggs in manure and filth and is transformed through 

the same stages of life history. 



Rules Against Flies 

1. Flies are very dangerous in the spread of disease, 
therefore we should not allow any decaying organic 
matter in which they can breed to accumulate. 

2. If the cellar is damp clean out the dark and 
damp corners and apply lime. 

3. Pour kerosene into the drains and also treat 
with kerosene all waste materials not intended for fer- 
tilizers. 

4. If the kitchen waste is deposited in large cans it 



34 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

should be removed at least once a week. The cans 
should have covers. 

5. Kitchen waste intended as food for hogs should 
be removed and used daily. 

6. Haul out the manure and spread it on the soil 
every day, or put it in a screened box to be emptied 
over the fields or gardens at least once a week, 

7. If inconvenient to haul the manure at short inter- 
vals, treat it with kerosene or gypsum. 

8. Keep up the work of destroying adult flies by 
the usual methods, and judiciously screen against them. 
Flies breed in filth ; they are among the worst agencies 
in the spread of typhoid fever, and every means pos- 
sible should be used to banish them from our homes. 



LESSON VIII 

4. THE BUG 

If it is possible to catch a two-year cicada, some- 
times called "dog-day harvest fly," or improperly, the 
locust, this will make the best specimen for the study 
of the true bug. If none of these can be got, a squash 
bug will illustrate the characteristics of all bugs. 

1. Draw the view of the whole body. 

2. How many wings are there? Note in the squash 
bug that the front half of the wing is horny and that 
the back half is membranous. 

3. Note the triangular prominence of the thorax on 
the back. 



THE BUG 35 

4. Observe the mouth parts. What does the bug's 
mouth show as to its manner of eating? 

5. For what kind of locomotion are the legs 
adapted ? 

6. Find the eyes and feelers. Write a sentence 
describing each. 



L ^'i^ 


■> '■ 








m^^ml 


KHB 


f^mm 




i^^f^M 




f "§ 



Fig. 12. The Squash Bug — Three 
St.\ges of Insect Growth 

7. What is the life history of the squash bug and 
cicada ? 

8. All the bugs belong in this order, together with 
plant lice, tree hoppers, scales, etc. 



36 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 

This is an injurious order of insects, and the kero- 
sene emulsion spray is the means of combating in most 
cases. 

LESSON IX 

5. THE DRAGON FLY 

Both dragon and damsel flies will have to be caught 
with a net. They are usually seen flying about ponds 
or streams of water. 

1. Answer the following questions from the observa- 
tion of a living specimen : 

(a) What is their habit of flight? 

(b) What is their food? 

(c) How do the dragon fly and damsel fly diflfer 
in habits? 

(d) What is the position of the wings at rest? 

2. After killing the dragon fly in the cyanide bottle, 
straighten its wings and legs and draw the whole body 
view. 

3. How do the legs compare with those of the grass- 
hopper ? 

4. How many wings are there? Write a descrip- 
tive sentence about them. 

5. Note the enormous development of the eyes. 
What would this indicate as to their habit of life? 
Find the three simple eyes, and tell where they are 
located. 

6. Write a descriptive sentence about the abdomen. 
How many segments? 



THE DRAGON FLY 



37 




Fig. 13. The Deagon-Fly 



7. Does the dragon fly have a sting? 

8. The life history. — The eggs are laid in the water. 
They hatch into a nymph, a form resembling the adult 
without wings. In this stage they live in the water, 
and feed greedily upon small water insects. At this 

stage they are bene- 
ficial in eating mos- 
quito larva. When 
the nymph is fully 
grown it crawls out 
of the water upon 
some convenient rock 
or reed, fastens its 
feet firmly, splits 
down the back, and 
the adult dragon fly crawls out, dries itself, and is soon 
ready to fly. The dragon fly is a beneficial insect, be- 
cause it preys upon other insects that are pests to us. 

LESSON X 

6. THE BEE 

1. Answer the following questions on the honey, or 
biimble bee, based upon field observation : 

(a) What kind of flowers does it feed upon? 

(b) Is it shy while feeding? Will it sting then? 

(c) Does it stay long at each flower? 

(d) What does it gather from the flower? 

(e) Explain how it helps the flower. 

(f) How does its manner of flight compare with 
that of the butterfly? 



38 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



2. Kill the bee in the cyanide bottle, and make a 
drawing of the body. 

3. Note the large body in comparison to the wings. 
Do you think that the wings wear out easily? How 
many wings are there? 

4. Are the legs of the bee all alike? Explain. 

5. Try to find the mouth parts and the tongue. 
"Write a descriptive sentence about them. 

6. Can you see any value in the hairy covering of 
the bee's body? 




Worker. 



Drone. 
Fig. 14. The Bee 



Queen, 



7. Find the sting of the bee and remove it. There 
is a poison gland at the root of the sting, which pours 
a fluid into the wound made by the sting, causing the 
painful sensation with which every boy is familiar. 

8. Where does the bumble bee make its nest? What 
is it made of? 

9. Life history. — The eggs are laid in the cells. The 
second stage is the worm-like creature, the larva, lying 
inactive in the cell. It must be fed, and it is a big eater. 
When it is fully grown it spins a silken cocoon about 
itself and enters the next stage. The third stage is 
the pupa. Here it remains quietly concealed within 



THE BEETLE 39 

its cocoon, over which the workers spread a thin layer 
of wax, making a cell of it. After a time it cuts its 
way through the top of the cell and comes forth a fully 
developed bumble bee. 

10. To this order belong the wasps, hornets, saw- 
flies, gallflies, ants, and honey bees. 

Note. — If it is desired to make an extended study of 
the honey bee as an insect for farm use, write to Mr. 
Frank Benton, of the Division of Entomology, Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for his Bee 
Book and other circulars. 

LESSON XI 
7. THE BEETLE 

1. Make a drawing of the beetle. 

2. How many wings has the beetle? With a freshly 
killed specimen in hand, extend the two horny, sheath 
wing-covers, which meet by smooth edges along the 
middle of the back, completely covering the thin mem- 
braneous wings beneath. Spread out all four of these 
wings and make a drawing to show the wing arrange- 
ment. 

3. Write a descriptive sentence about the mouth 
parts. Are they made for sucking or biting and 
chewing ? 

4. Write a sentence telling of the size and position 
of the eyes. 

5. How many joints in the beetle's leg? Describe 
the claws. 



40 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



6. How many segments in the abdomen? Com- 
pare the upper and lower surfaces. 

7. How do beetles live? Find as many different 
kinds as you can. 

8. Life history. — The beetle has all the four stages: 
egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The eggs of the beetle 

hatch into grub s, w i r o 
worms, borers, etc. In this 
stage they do great damage 
to the crops, trees, and other 
vegetation. From the grub 
stage they pass into a pupa 
stage similar to all other in- 
sects. The pupas are usually 
in the ground, from which 
emerge adult beetles. 

Most of the beetles are 
very injurious insects, the tiger beetles and lady beetles 
excepted, and, since they are usually chewing insects, 
the treatment is a lead arsenate or paris green spray. 




a. Larva, b. Adult. 
Fig. 15. Ground Beetle 



Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 

No. 38. — Spraying for Fruit Diseases. 

No. 45. — Some Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. 

No. 75. — The Grain Smuts: Cause and Prevention. 

No. 91. — Potato Diseases and Their Treatment. 

No. 99. — Three Insects Enemies of Shade Trees. 

No. 127. — Important Insecticides. 

No. 132. — The Principal Insect Enemies of Wheat. 

No. 146. — Insecticides and Fungicides. 

No. 171.— The Control of the Codling Moth. 

No. 172. — Scale Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees. 

No. 196.— The Usefulness of the Toad. 

No. 212.— The Cotton Bollworm. 



THE BEETLE 41 

Spraying Mixtures for Plant Diseases 

(Bordeaux Mixture.) 

5 lbs. unslacked lime $0.04 

3 lbs. copper sulphate at 10c 30 

Total $0.34 

Dissolve each thoroughly in 25 gallons of water. When both 
are thoroughly dissolved, mix. Use wooden vessels. Strain care- 
fully into spray-pump, barrel, or tank. 
Lime-Sulphur 

11/4 gallons lime-sulphur $0.20 

50 gallons water. 

For Leaf-Eating Insects 
1/2 lb. Paris green to 50 gallons water. Spray. 

Cost \ $0.15 

3 lbs. arsenate of lead to 50 gallons water. 

Cost $0.45 

Asenafe of lead sticks to the plant much better than Paris 
green, and is therefore more useful, especially in rainy seasons. 

For Sap-Sucking Insects 

2 gallons kerosene $0.25 

1 lb. hard soap (1 qt. soft soap) 10 

1 gallon water 

Total cost $0.35 

Problems 

1. Suppose it takes two applications of two pounds 
of lead arsenate each, and two days' time at $1.00 per 
day to destroy the bugs on an acre of potatoes, how 
many bushels of potatoes at 50c per bushel will it take 
to pay for the treatment? 

2. If one house fly lays 80 eggs four different times 
during the summer, and half of these eggs hatch female 
flies, each one laying the same number of eggs as the 
first fly, and so on to four generations, how many flies 
would come from the first fly during the summer? 

3. I^ind out the average yield of honey from hives 
in your community, and calculate the income from a 
hive of bees at the prevailing price paid for honey. 



42 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 

LESSON XII 

PLANT DISEASES 

Injury and control. — Perhaps we have noticed during 
the summer that some of the plants we were interested 
in grew sickly and died, in spite of all the care and 
attention we gave them. We are told by the botanists 
that plants have diseases, just as people do. Rust, 
blight, smut, rot, and the like, are the common names 
of diseases which afflict the plant. They spread from 
plant to plant by means of little dust-like particles 
called spores. These spores float around in the air and 
settle on healthy plants. Here the spores may grow 
and injure the plant by living upon its sap. They 
must be destroyed or they may kill the plant upon 
which they feed. The various diseases caused by the 
spores are called fungous diseases. Some of the most 
common forms are the fire blight of the pear and apple, 
the smut of corn and oats, the rust of wheat, the potato 
scab, potato blight, peach leaf curl, apple scab, club 
root, black knot of plum, brown and bitter rot, and 
many other kindred varieties. 

As soon as the diseases make their appearance in the 
orchards or on the crops, the farmer should begin his 
fight. If the leaves of the trees begin to dry up and 
blacken with the blight, the affected parts should be 
immediately cut off, at some distance below the blight, 
and burned. The lime-sulphur, or Bordeaux mixture, 
spray described in Lessons 11 and 64, are the spray 
remedies to use on most plant diseases. 



PLANT DISEASES 43 

Practical Exercises 

1. Observation of Some Plant Diseases 
Bring samples of diseased plants to the school and 

fill out the following outline as you study the speci- 
mens : 

Common Names of the Diseases. | Plants Affected. | Remedy. 



^. Treating Oats for Smut 
Bring a half bushel of oats to school in a ''gunny- 
sack." Soak the oats, sack and all, for about ten 
minutes in a vessel holding ten gallons of water, to 
which has been added one-fourth pint of formaldehyde 
(40 per cent). Then spread the oats out to dry. The 
formaldehyde kills the spores of the smut that are on 
the oats, and the crop coming from this treated seed 
will be free from the disease. It would be a good 
service to the farmers if the school would treat all the 
seed oats in the community. 

Problems 

1. Suppose it takes 200 gallons of Bordeaux mixture 
to spray an acre of potatoes. What is the cost of the 
mixture? (See Lesson 11.) 

2. Suppose it takes two applications to cure the 
blight and each application requires a day's time, 
worth $1.00. What is the cost of the cure? 

3. How many bushels of potatoes, at 50 cents a 
bushel, will it take to pay the cost of this spray? 



44 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 

4. Suppose two fields of potatoes of an acre each, 
owned by different farmers. One farmer sprays to 
cure the blight, and gets 188 bushels of potatoes, worth 
50 cents per bushel. The other neglects his field and 
gets but 75 bushels. What is the difference in the 
value of the two crops? 

5. What did it cost the first farmer to apply the 
spray? What is his actual gain over the other farmer? 
Did it pay to spray? 

6. If formaldehyde costs 50 cents per pint, and a 
pint will treat 40 bushels of oats, how much will it 
cost per acre to treat the seed oats, sowing three bush- 
els to the acre? 

7. Suppose it takes a day's work, worth $1, to treat 
the seed for 12 acres, what is the total cost of the treat- 
ment? 

8. How many bushels of oats, at 30 cents per 
bushel, will it take to pay for the treatment? Suppose 
the treatment increased the yield 20 bushels per acre, 
how much does the farmer gain on his crop ? 



LESSON XIII 
THE WHEAT CROP 

General cultural requirements. — Wheat has been 
cultivated from the earliest times. The crop ranks third 
in value in the United States. It grows in cool, tem- 
perate, and warm climates, and in many kinds of soil. 
It does best in clay loam, and poorest in sandy loam. 



WHEAT CROP 45 

The soil must be well drained, and in a good physical 
condition — that is, it must be open, crumbly, and mellow. 
Hard clay soils can be made valuable for wheat by ma- 
nuring, by good tillage, and by crop rotation. Cow peas 
or red clover make a valuable crop to precede wheat ; for 
they add nitrogen to the soil, loosen it, allow free circu- 
lation of air, and add liumus to the soil when plowed 
under. 



^^^^^^ - -. -«■ 




9ViP^fflRllffMiiipH|^H| 


^^^i-^-^M^^^ 


"a^ j^"^^ Mmm 


t 



Pig. 16. — Wheat Field in Shenandoah Valley 

Soil preparation. — The method of preparing the soil 
for wheat will depend on the previous crop and the na- 
ture of the soil. Where wheat is to be sown in standing 
corn, the most practical soil preparation consists in thor- 
ough cultivation of the corn crop, keeping the soil mellow 
and free of weeds throughout the summer. It is much 
better to cut off the corn and thoroughly disk and harrow 
the ground before drilling the wheat. Wheat requires an 
ideal seed bed and a firm, sub-soil. 

Seeding the wheat. — The time to sow wheat in the 



46 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 

central states varies from the second week in September 
to the first week in October. On account of the Hessian 
fly it is advisable to sow wheat as late as possible. The 
seed drill is the best implement for sowing wheat. The 
amount of seed per acre required to get the best results 
depends upon a number of conditions, such as the fer- 
tility of the soil, the condition of the seed bed as to 
fineness and moisture, and the size and quality of the 
seed used. "With medium-sized seed of good quality on a 
well prepared fertile soil, six pecks per acre will usually 
be sufficient. 

The selection of good seed is an important means of 
increasing the yield of wheat. Seed should be selected 
from the best portions of the crop, graded and cleaned 
in such a way as to get the largest and plumpest grains 
for sowing. In Indiana, the highest yielding varieties 
of wheat are the Ruby, Pearl's Prolific, Michigan Amber, 
Farmer's Friend, and Abundance. 

Feeding the wheat crop. — Wheat responds to the 
use of fertilizers more readily than most of the ordinary 
crops. A study of the crop will show what sort of fer- 
tilizer is needed. If the straw is inferior and short, the 
soil may be deficient in nitrogen ; but if the straw be 
luxuriant and the heads small and poorly filled, the soil 
may contain too little phosphoric acid and potash. 

Purdue Experiment Station recommends for wheat the 
application at seeding time of about 300 pounds per acre 
of a fertilizer containing two per cent nitrogen, eight 
available phosphoric acid, and two to four per cent pot- 
ash. If the farmer wishes to mix his own fertilizer and 



WHEAT CROP 47 

thus save several dollars per ton, 200 pounds per acre 
of the following mixture is advised : 900 pounds steamed 
bone meal, 300 pounds high grade acid phosphate, and 
200 pounds muriate of potash. These may be purchased 
from fertilizer companies and can be easily mixed with 
a shovel on the barn floor. 

The average yield for wheat in the United States is 
but little over thirteen bushels per acre. In view of the 
fact that the acreage of wheat is decreasing, and the 
population of the country increasing, there is occasion for 
alarm over the future bread supply. The future wheat 
supply must come, not so much from increased acreage, 
as from increased production per acre. 

Practical Exercises 

1. Study of the Wheat Plant. 

Take a walk into a wheat field. Note whether the 
stand is good. Is there a luxuriant growth of stem ? Have 
the heads filled out well ? Pull up a single wheat plant, 
root and stem. Take several wheat plants and a hand- 
ful of wheat into the schoolroom. Make a drawing of 
the wheat and its root system. Separate your handful 
of wheat grains into two piles — one containing the 
plump, large seeds, and the other, the smaller, inferior 
seeds. 

^. The StooUng Habit of Wheat 

Plant a few wheat seeds in pots in the schoolroom, and 
after they have grown into stems and begun to fall over, 
dig out a few of the plants without breaking off many 
of the roots. Volunteer wheat may be found growing 



48 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

in the fic4ds. Try to find the grain from which the plant 
started. Find the first joint. 

Do you find more than one plant starting from this 
joint ? 

All but the central one of these are stools. 

Do the stools seem to be as strong as the central plant ? 

Does the thickness of the stand seem to have anything 
to do with the amount of stooling ? 

Is the stooling greater in rich soil or in poor soil ? 

Is a large amount of stooling desirable ? Why ? 

3. A Visit to the Mill 
If practicable, visit some mill to see how the flour is 
made. Write a paragraph describing your visit. 

Problems 

1. How much wheat will we have on our farm at 30 
bushels per acre? What will it be worth at the prevail- 
ing price? 

2. Calculate what it will cost to raise this crop at the 
present price of labor and seed and fertilizer. What 
will be our profit ? 

3. At the price of flour, will it pay the forty-acre 

farmer to raise wheat, or buy the flour ? 

References: The Cereals in America. — Thos. Hunt. How the 
World is Fed. — Industrial Reader, Carpenter. Circular 23, Purdue 
Experiment Station, Lafayette, Ind. 



OCTOBER 

On the Farm. — While the trees are preparing for win- 
ter, shedding their beai^ifully colored leaves, we too 
must prepare for the winter, by filling our barns, cel- 
lars, and granaries with the grains and fruits of our 
fields. After the silo is filled, we shall cut and shock a 
part of our corn, but the greater part we shall husk 
and leave the fodder in the field for ' ' stalk pasture. ' ' Our 
apples will be piled in cool places until time to store 
in the cellar. We shall have pumpkins to gather, po- 
tatoes to dig, sauerkraut and cider to make, and fall 
vegetables to store away. If there are any more shrubs 
and trees to plant on the farm, October is a good 
month for this work. Of course, we shall set some 
hyacinth, tulip, daffodil, and crocus bulbs for early 
spring flowers. 

LESSON XIV 

SELECTING AND STORING SEED CORN 

The good farmer in husking his corn will have by 
him a special box or basket into which he can throw 
ears of corn selected from the stalk for next year's 
seed corn. 

Position of ear on stalk. — The first point to notice in 
selecting an ear for seed is its position on the stalk. 
The ear should be set about midway up the stalk, not 

49 



50 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

too near the bottom nor too near the top. The shank 
that holds the ear should not to be too long, so that it 
holds the ear far from the stalk. On the other hand, it 
should not be so short that it causes the ear to stand 
upright against the stalk. The stalk should be of 
medium size, strong and tapering with strong brace 
roots and plenty of leaves. * 

Shape of ear. — The next point to observe is the gen- 
eral shape and development of each ear selected. For 
the first selection of the corn in the field be governed 
by the following points: 

1. Length of ear, between eight and ten inches. 

2. Circumference of the ear, about three-fourths 
the length. 

3. Rows of kernels, straight and running well out 
to the tip and butt of the ear. Kernels well shaped, 
firmly set in place, deeply dented and all of the same 
purity of color. 

Governed by these points in the field selection of ears, 
the farmer may select more corn than is really needed 
for his seed, so that a closer selection and grading may 
be made in the spring before planting. 

Storing seed corn. — In storing the corn, it should 
either be hung by the husks torn back from the ear, 
or be placed in racks made of narrow strips with spaces 
between. Whatever the device used to store the corn 
may be, it should provide for free circulation of air 
about the ears, and a dry, cool place, protected from 
mice, rats and poultry. 

The scoring, judging, and final testing and se- 



SELECTING AND STORING SEED CORN 



51 



lection of seed corn are treated in the lessons for 
March, but if desired may be taken up in the schools 
at this time; in which case it would be advisable to re- 
peat them in the spring. 

Practical Exercises 

1. Observational Study of Stalls of Corn 

Bring a half dozen stalks of corn into the school- 
room. Let each stalk have its roots, leaves, ears and all 







^fff^ffff?*** 



^m^ima 






:<■::■■'*:■'' « 



ttiiiiiiiiii. 




Fig. 17. Reid's Yellow Dent 

complete. Make notes of your observations of each 
stalk on the following points: 

1. Leaf growth. 

2. Size and vigor of stalk, 

3. Brace roots. 



53 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

4. Height of ear. 

5. Length of shank. 

6. Ear — good or poor type. 
Reference: Farmers' Bulletin, No. 229. ■ 

2. Selecting the Seed Corn in the Field 

Go to a corn field in the vicinity of the school and 
select at least fifty desirable stalks of corn bearing the 
ears as explained in the discussion above. First select 
the strong, medium-sized, stocky stalks having the ears 
properly located and bending from the stalk. Husk 
enough of the ear to see whether the other points of 
selection mentioned as (1), (2), (3) above, are up to a 
good standard. Husk ten or twelve ears and take them 
to the schoolroom for further study. 

If it is not practical to go to a corn field, a dozen 
or more stalks of corn should be brought into the school- 
room for a study of the points in field selection of seed 
corn. Make notes criticizing the stalks. 
3. Storing Seed Corn 

Construct a swinging shelf in the attic of the school- 
room by means of four wires and a board about six 
feet long by one foot wide. Lay the corn you have se- 
lected for seed on this shelf, cording it up like wood sev- 
eral layers deep. Such a swinging shelf may be made 
in the barn or crib at the farm, and several bushels 
of seed corn stored upon it. 

4. Selecting Exhibition Corn 

Arrange for an exhibit day as a practical lesson under 
this topic. Each pupil should bring ten of the best ears 



SELECTING AND STOEING SEED CORN 



53 



of corn he can select from the home crop. One very 
important thing in choosing corn for an exhibit is the 
principle of uniformity. In order to get a high rating 
on an exhibit, all the ears in the set must look alike as 
nearly as possible. Pick out the best ten ears you can 
find, which by careful measurement and comparison 




Fig. 18. Drying Rack fob Seed Coen 

are nearest alike. Arrange all the exhibits which are 
brought to school, so as to show them to the best ad- 
vantage. See the lesson on corn judging and scoring. 
Have some outside person judge the corn, invite the 
parents in, award prizes, talk corn, and make a great day 
of the corn exhibit. Save the ten ears that won first 
prize and bring them to the county and state corn shows. 



54 LESSONS IX AGKICULTURE — ' 

5. Field SUidies of the Corn 
With note-book, pencil, and rule, go to the corn field, 
and answer from observations the following points: 

1. Name of the variety of corn. 

2. Date the corn matures. 

3. Average height of corn. 

4. Average number of leaves on a corn stalk; the 
number of joints. 

5. Length of ear shank on an average of ten plants. 

6. Husks ; abundant or scarce ; close or loose. 

7. Number of corn plants on an acre (10 rods x 16 
rods). 

8. Average height of ears from the ground. 

9. The number of ears of corn on the acre measured ; 
the number of bushels on the acre. 

6. Study of an Ear of Corn 
With an ear of corn on the desk before you, describe 
it, using the following outline : 

1. Name of the variety. 

2. Color of grain and cob. 

3. Surface, smooth or rough. 

4. Rows of kernels; number, straightness, spacing, 
and completeness. 

5. Grains, firm or loose. 

6. Shape of the ear. 

7. Butt; even, shallow or deep. 

8. Tip ; exposed or covered, nature of kernel at tip. 

9. Kernels; square or rounded at top, shoe-peg or 
rounded form. 



SELECTING AND STOEING SEED CORN 



55 



10. Length and circumference of the ear. 

11. "Weight of ear, of kernels, and of cob; per cent 
of grain. 

12. Number of kernels on the ear. 

Problems 

1. The corn crop for the last five years in the United 
States has been over 2,500,000,000 bushels a year. How 
much is that for each person in the United States? 

2. What is the value of this corn at the prevailing 
price ? 

3. How much corn was grown in your state last 
year? What was the yield per acre? (See Year Book 
of the Department of Agriculture. If the school does 
not have the latest copy, apply to your member of Con- 
gress.) 

LESSON XV 

THE BEST CORN IN THE COMMUNITY 
Practical Exercises 

Let each pupil weigh out one bushel of corn in the 
ear at home, and bring the weights to school. Then each 
one copy the weights and data of all the others, and 
tabulate the results as follows : 



Pupils ' 

Names. 



Weight of 
Bushel. 



No. of lbs. 
Overweight. 



Per ceut 
Overweight. 



Lbs. of 
Underweight. 



Variety. 



56 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

Problems 

1. How much should we expect to gather from our 
ten-acre lot of corn as shown in Lesson I, and what is 
it worth at the present price? 

2. How many ears of corn will it take to make a 
bushel ? 

3. How many bushels of corn in a wagon box 10 
feet long, 3 feet wide, and 27 inches deep, filled to round- 
ing and gauged by bushel measure 12x12x27 inches? 

4. How many bushels of corn in a bin 10 feet long, 
10 feet wide, and 10 feet high, using the same gauge? 

LESSON XVI 

COLLECTION OF FARM PRODUCTS 
Practical Exercises 

Try to get small bundles of each of the grains raised 
in the community, viz., wheat, oats, rye, corn, cowpeas, 
clover, and any other crop raised for its seed. Pupils 
should each bring a few culms of these and a collec- 
tion will soon be made. Each bundle should be labeled as 
follows : 

Name of plant. Date of collection. Name of collector. 
The collection should be accompanied by samples of the 
mature seed, put up in bottles of uniform size, and 
labeled as above. 

All the grasses and clovers used as hay may be col- 
lected in the same way. Arrange the exhibit on the wall 
or in a frame in as artistic a manner as possible. 

A day could be set apart when the fruits and vege- 




CO 

X 
X 

UJ 

H 



FEUIT GEOWING 57 

tables, as well as the farm products of the neighborhood, 
can be exhibited. Awards and prizes might be offered, 
thus making the school a new center of interest in the 
community. 

As much of the collection as can be made permanent 
should be made so and kept at the school during the 
term. 

The collection and arrangement of this material 



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Fig. 19. A West ^■II;|jI^•IA Cokn Exhibit 

will furnish a valuable lesson, and give opportunity to 
develop skillful exhibitors. 

A farm product show would be an excellent activity 
for the boys and girls of the agricultural society men- 
tioned in a later lesson. 

LESSON XVII 

FRUIT GROWING 

Interest in fruit. — During October it is easy to be 
interested in fruit, both in the planting and the har- 
vesting. It is easy to resolve, when one sees the splendid 



58 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



harvest of apples, peaches, and other fruits ripening in 
the autumn in our neighbors' orchards, to share in this 
bounty by planting fruit trees on our own farms. And 
this is a commendable resolution, for fruit is a most 
wholesome food, and the demands for it in the markets 
of the world are annually increasing. 

Extension of orchards. — Many hillsides and rolling 
fields, poorly adapted to grain culture would produce 
profitable orchards of apples, peach, cherry, or smaller 

















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Fig. 20. Modern Methods in Orchard Cultivation 

fruits. It would be better for the soils of many farms, 
and for the purses of many farmers, were their hillsides 
planted to fruit trees rather than to grain, for in the 
former case the harvest will be barrels of fruit, while 
in the latter it is too often scattered grain and weeds 
in a badly washed and gullied field. 



FRUIT GROWING 59 

Setting and caring for the orchard. — For various 
reasons which we shall not discuss here, the young or- 
chard should be set on high, rolling land. After a site 
has been chosen, the land should be prepared as thor- 
oughly as for a corn crop. If it is not practical to plow 
the ground, large holes, about four feet in diameter and 
two feet deep, should be dug for places in which to set 
the little trees. It is best to buy trees at least one or two 
years old for planting. During this month the fruit 
trees may be set. Follow the principles of planting dis- 
cussed in Lesson 72, and mulch the trees well with strawy 
manure as they go into the winter. 

Apple trees should be set about forty feet apart each 
way, and peach trees from eighteen to twenty feet apart. 
They may be set in squares or in triangles. The trian- 
gular arrangement will give more trees to the acre. 

Just as the young forest described in Lesson 72 is 
plowed in the spring, so should the young fruit orchard 
be cultivated, if possible. After cultivating the fruit 
orchard until the middle of June, it should then be sown 
to a clover or cow pea crop, which would act as a winter 
mulch for that season. Such care, together with the 
pruning and spraying that is discussed later, will start 
the young orchard well on the way to fruitfulness. 

The fruits. — The trees may be divided into pome and 
stone fruits. The apple, pear, and quince are called 
pomes, because they contain a core in which are the 
seeds. The cherry, plum, peach, prune, and apricot are 
called stone or drupe fruits, because the seed is enclosed 
in a hard stony shell. The grape is our only vine fruit. 



60 



LESSONS IN AGRJ CULTURE 



Of the small fruits the currant, gooseberry, raspberry, 
blackberry, and dewberry, are commonly called the bush 
fruits from their habit of growth. The strawberry is a 
small fruit in a class by itself. 
Picking, marketing, and storing the fruit. — Whether 




Fig. 21. Harvesting Apples 

the apples and peaches are to be gathered for home 
use or to be sold on the market, it is always best to care- 
fully pick them from the trees rather than to shake them 
down and allow them to become bruised or injured. 
Fruit with bruised or broken skin will rot much sooner, 
and sell for less in the market. Apples and peaches 



FBUIT GROWING 61 

should be picked by hand and placed in baskets by the 
pickers. Apples should be kept in a cool, well ventilated 
place until freezing weather before storing in the winter 
cellar. Winter apples will keep much longer and in bet- 
ter condition if each fruit is wrapped in thin paper of 
some sort. Apples for the market are carefully graded 
and packed in attractive packages, either in barrels or 
bushel boxes, and shipped to all parts of the country 
and to foreign lands. 

Practical Exercises 
1. Types of Fruit 

1. Let each pupil take an apple and a pear and ob- 
serve the blossom end, opposite the stem. Here is a 
depression called the basin. This was the base of the 
apple and pear blossom. Compare with the blossom 
end of the peach or plum. Explain the difference. 

2. Let each pupil cut the fruits through the center 
in a plane perpendicular to the main stem. Examine 
the core, the cells and the seeds. How many cells are 
there? How are they arranged? Observe the parch- 
ment-like walls of the cells. How many seeds in each 
cell? Make a drawing of the cross section of the pear 
or apple. 

3. Compare the structure of the plum or peach pits 
with the apple seeds. Note the hard shell-like covering 
of the pits. Crack the shell and observe the seed. In 
this meaty portion lies the embyro, which will grow into 
a new plant under proper conditions of air, heat, and 
moisture. Draw cross section of the peach. 



62 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



Answer the following questions : 



1. 
2. 

end? 
3. 
4. 
5. 



What fruits have a depression at the blossom end ? 
What fruits are more or less round at the blossom 



What common fruits have seeds ? 
What three common fruits have pits? 
How much space does the core take up in the 
apple ? 

6. How many cells in the core of the apple ? 

7. How do pits and seeds differ in structure ? 

8. What are the general differen'^es between a pome 
fruit and a drupe fruit? 

References: U. S. Dept. Bulletin, No. 178. 

2. Judging and Scoring Apples 
Each pupil should bring four or five apples of the 
same variety to exhibit and use for scoring. The apples 
should be of standard size, all alike in shape, size, and 
color. Each apple should be free from insect, or fun- 
gous blemish, and as nearly perfect in every respect as 
it is possible to find. If only one plate of apples can be 
obtained, set it before the class and let each pupil mark 
the score for the apples, using the following score card: 

Score Card for Judging Apples 
Owner of the exhibit Date 



Points Noted. 


Perfect 
Score. 


Pupil 's Teacher 's 
Score. Score. 


Size of the exhibit 

Color 


20 
15 
15 
15 
20 
100 






Form 




Quality 




Freedom from blemishes.. 
Total 





FEUIT GROWING 63 

When single plates or apples are scored, the first point 
may be graded the full 20 points. 

^. Decay in Apples 
^Select three ripe apples of the same variety and of 
equal degree of ripeness, and bring them before the class. 

1. Strike against the side of one so as to bruise the 
surface but not break the skin. 

2. Bruise the second apple so that the skin is broken. 

3. Leave the third apple uninjured. 

Place the three apples away somewhere in the room 
where they will not be disturbed, and observe the results 
from day to day. 

1. "Which apple decays first? 

2. Of what use is the skin of the apple ? 

3. Take two apples of nearly the same size, and 
weigh both. Peel one and leave the other untouched. 
Weigh both apples again in twenty-four hours. Which 
has lost the most in weight ? Explain the cause. 

Note. If there are no scales in the school, ask some 
pupil to bring his instrument from his home. 

Problems 

1. On our farm is an apple orchard of three acres. 
If the trees are 40 feet apart, and are about 15 years 
old, wiiat cash return should we expect from the sale 
of apples at $3.00 per barrel? 

2. What will it cost per acre to set out a young apple 
orchard, if we have to pay 25c a tree? Plant trees in 
squares, 36 feet apart. 

3. Deduct from the price received above for apples, 
the expenses of spraying, determined in Lesson 73, and 



64 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 

give the net profit we shall have on our three-acre or- 
chard. 

References: Bailey's Principles of Fruit Growing. 
Farmers' Bulletin, No. 178. 
Waugh's American Apple Orchard. 
Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 113 and 33. 
Farmers' Bulletin, No. 154. 



LESSON XVIII 

NUT CROPS 

Value of the nut crop. — Nuts are not usually thought 
of as a farm crop, yet every country boy and girl knows 
that the autumn time without nuts would lose much of 
its charm. Nuts are valuable food. They are rich and 
nutritious, and should always be counted as a part of 
our winter's store. There are several kinds of nut trees 
which are highly esteemed as ornamental shade trees, as 
well as for the valuable fruit they yield. 

Some of the leading kinds of nuts are English walnut, 
almond, white walnut or butternut, black walnut, hickory 
nut, pecan, chinquapin, chestnut, hazel nut, cocoanut, 
and Brazil nut. 

Nuts to plant. — The planting of nut orchards is to be 
encouraged on the farm. Several varieties of valuable 
nuts, such as the pecan, English walnut, and hickory nut, 
are widely adapted to temperate as well as sub-tropical 
regions, and should be planted on more of our farms. 
The pecan, especially such varieties as Mantura and Ap- 
pomatox, the English walnut, and the little shell-bark 
or shag-bark hickory, have been successfully grown as 
far north as latitude 40°. If the boys and girls who read 
this lesson would plant a few nut trees this month, they 



CLASSIFICATION OF FARM CROPS 



G5 



would be rewarded, even before they were full grown 
men and women, by profitable and gratifying returns of 
a most delicious food. 

Practical Exercises 

1. Tabular Study of Nuts 

Bring to the school samples of as many different kinds 
of nuts as you can find this month. Fill out the follow- 
ing table from your observation and study of these nuts : 



Kind of Nut. | Nature of Shells. | Kind ol Kernel. I Price in the Markets 




Reference: Farmers' Bulletin, No. 332, 



LESSON XIX 

CLASSIFICATION OF FARM CROPS 

Outline Beview 
By the end of October all the farm crops for the year 
have been planted and most of them harvested. It will 
be well for us to classify these crops into a few groups 
by which they are commonly mentioned. 

The following outline should be copied into the pupils' 
note-books, and filled out as indicated : 

I. Cereals. Those crops which belong to the grass 
family, and whose seeds are made into flour which is 
used for bread. 

1 4 

2 5 

3 6 



QQ LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

II. Legumes. Plants with blossoms similar to the 
sweet pea and garden pea. 

1 4 

2 5 

3 6 

III. Roots. Crops having a slender or fleshy root 
which is used for food both for live stock and man. 

1 3 

2 4 

IV. Tubers. An enlarged underground stem, used 
for food. 

1 2 

V. Bulbs. An enlarged and thickened leaf-stock or 
petiole, on which are thickened scale leaves. 

1 : 2 

VI. Fibre Crops. Any plant that furnishes material 
out of which cloth or rope is made is called a fibre plant. 

1 3 

2 

VII. Forage Crops. The term forage crops is used 
for a good many crops. It usually means those crops 
that are used for coarse feed for live stock. 

1 4 ... 

2 5 

3 6 

VIII. Miscellaneous Crops. Various other crops that 
cannot be classified with the above. 

1 4 

2 5 

3 6 



NOVEMBER 

On the farm.— When the harvest is over and the 
winter stores are properly put away, we shall look to 
the stock on our farm. We must decide what stock we 
shall keep over winter and what we should sell. The 
barns and sheds must be in good repair, the mows and 
silos full of feed, and fill conveniences possible provided 
for the care and feeding of the live stock. The most im- 
portant work on the farm during the winter months is 
the care and feeding of the farm animals. 

LESSON XX 

THE STOCK ON THE FARM 

The good farmer in most cases avoids "scrub" stock. 
He has learned that it pays to take good care of his stock, 
and that it costs no more in care and feed to raise a good 
animal than to raise a poor one. The successful farmer 
has also learned that it pays to keep plenty of live stock 
on the farm. Farm animals are kept primarily to sup- 
ply the demand for meat, milk, eggs, wool, and to fur- 
nish motive power for certain kinds of labor, but they 
also make possible a larger production of grain year 
after year, and a complete utilization of everything grown 
on the farm, besides returning to the farm a large per- 
centage of the feed in the form of valuable fertilizers. 

67 



68 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



Feeding farm animals. — Animals must be fed to 
make them grow, to keep them warm and active, and to 
furnish special products, such as milk, eggs, wool, etc. 
Animals must be fed regularly and with the proper food 
in sufficient quantities. Shelter against the heat and 
storms of summer and the cold of winter must go along 





; ^'^■''^M' " ■'."'.' -- "^ '- , ^'VT^- \- ■ 





Fig. 22. High Grade Beef Cattle 

with the proper feeding of farm animals. If the stables 
are cold or the animals are allowed to stand out during 
the winter days, then the additional heat required to 
keep them warm must be supplied by additional food. 
Animals, like people, suffer in extremes of temperature. 
It is not right to allow stock to suffer, either for food or 
shelter. Animals that are poorly fed, left unsheltered, 
or allowed to become filthy and dirty, grow unhealthy, 



THE STOCK ON THE FAEM 



69 



sicken, and die. No one can doiiht that it pays to take 
good care of stock. 

Value of good stock. — It takes no more room and 
costs no more in food and care to raise a good farm ani- 
mal than it does to raise a "scrub." A scrub cow eats 
as much hay, takes as much stable room, and requires as 
much work to care for as a cow of good breeding, and 




Fig. 23. A Heed of Jerseys 

it has been shown that the scrub cow does not pay for 
her keep. A scrub colt or a scrub sheep is no better than 
a scrub cow; it eats as much or more, and will not sell 
for as much as a good animal. And a "hazel-splitter" 
hog certainly requires as much food and care as a 
genuine "porker." If the pupils who read this lesson 
are convinced that it pays to keep good stock instead of 
scrubs, the purpose of the lesson is already attained. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 

No. 41. — Fowls: Care and Feeding. 

No. 51. — Standard Varieties of Chickens. 

No. 64. — Ducks and Geese: Breeds and Management. 

No. 100. — Hog Raising in the South. 



70 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

No. 141. — Poultry Raising on the Farm. 

No. 179. — Horseshoeing. 

No. 200. — Turkeys : Breeds and Management. 

No. 205. — Pig Management. 
Extracts. 

No. 1.5. — Some Practical Suggestions for the Suppression and 
Prevention of Bovine Tuberculosis. 

Table showing value of manure, per head, produced, annually 
by farm animals: 

Horse $27.00 

Cow 19.00 

Hog 12.00 

Sheep 2.00 

Table showing value of manure, per animal, saved annually 
from animals by the average farmer: 

Horse $10.00 

Cow 6.00 

Hog 4.00 

Sheep 75 

Practical Exercises 

Note. • The practical lessons on farm animals will be 

given and numbered as separate lessons in this series. 



LESSON XXI 
THE DRIVING HORSE 

By comparing the horses Ave see on the road, we can 
observe that there are different forms or types. Some 
have a form that enables them to draw a heavy load 
at a slow pace, while others have a form adapted to 
drawing light loads at a rapid pace. These represent 
two distinct types, and are called draft horses and driv- 
ing horses. 

In this lesson we are to study the driving horse. You 
will observe that the driving horse has a long graceful 
neck, a narrow chest, long body and legs. In this horse 



THE DRIVING HOESE 



71 



weight is not so important as in the draft horse. Speed 
and endurance seem to be the principal points sought 
in the roadster. The driving horse varies widely in 
height and weight. 

The following points any school boy should recognize 
in a good driving horse : 




Fig. 24. A General Purpose Horse 

1. The color is not so important in this type of horses. 
The dark colors are generally preferred. 

2. Geldings are to be preferred. 

3. The horse should be fifteen to sixteen hands high 
at the withers. 

4. Conformation. The horse should be harmoni- 



72 LESSONS IN AGKICULTURE 

ous, unblemished, withers rather low, and loins slightly 
weak, but powerful croup, thighs, buttocks, legs and 
hocks are essential. 

5. The neck should be long, chest large and deep, 
limbs clean and long, and muscles and joints showing 
graceful prominence. 

6. The animal should have good life, and not be 
afraid of ordinary objects. 

The teacher should study the following score card 
for light horses, and if the . proper explanations be 
made, pupils of the eighth grade will be able to mark 
the card and score the horse fairly well : 

Have a horse before the class for this lesson. 

The class should gather about the horse, with this 
book in hand, and opened at the score card. Each pu- 
pil should read each point of the score card, then look 
at the horse to see how it measures up to the description 
given. Mark lightly with lead pencil the grade you 
would give on each point, opposite the perfect grade 
given on the score card. 



THE DEIVING HOKSE 



73 



Score Card for Light Horse 



Description. 



PerfectI Students' 
Score. I Score. 



Frame — Smooth, evenly proportioned 

Quality — Bone clean and hard, tendons well de- 
fined, veins prominent, skin and hair fine 

Temperament — Active but kind 

Head — Lean and symetrical 

Forehead — Full and broad 

Eyes — Large, clear, open, and bright 

Ears — Close together, medium in size, pointed to 
carry well forward 

Muzzle — Clean and fine, nostrils large, lips thin 
and even 

Neck — Muscular, crest high, windpipe prominent. 

Shoulders — Long, oblique, well muscled 

Arms — Short, thrown forward 

Fore-arms — Long, wide 

Knees — Wide, straight, and clean 

Cannons — Short, wide, sinews large 

Fetlock — Wide, straight 

Pasterns — Strong, angle with ground 4.5 degrees. 

Feet — Medium and even in size, horn dense, frog 
large, elastic, bars strong, sole concave, heel 
wide 

Legs — Viewed in front, a perpendicular from 
point of shoulder should cut the center of knee 
cannon, pastern and foot viewed from side, a 
perpendicular from center of elbow should cut 
the center of knee and pastern joint and the 
back of hoof 

Withers — Well finished and muscled at top 

Chest — Deep, low, large 

Ribs — Long, sprung, close 

Back — Straight, short, broad, well muscled 

Loin — Wide, short and thick 

Underline — Short, straight 

Hips — Wide, level 

Croup — Long, wide, muscular 

Tall — Attached high, well carried 

Thighs — Muscular, long, and spread 

Quarters — Deep and heavily muscled 

Gaskin — Muscular, long and wide 

Hocks — Clean, wide, straight 

Cannons — Short, wide, and clean 

Fetlocks — Wide, straight 

Pastern — Strong, sloping 

Feet — Same as fore feet 

Legs — From behind, perpendicular from point of 
buttock cuts center of hock, cannon, pastern 
and foot; from side, perpendicular from point 
of hip should fall on center of foot and di- 
vide gaskin in the middle and perpendicular 
from buttock should be parallel with cannon.. 

Action — Walk quick, elastic, trot rapid, straight, 
regular and high 



4 

20 

I 



Total .J ^100 



74 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

LESSON XXII 

THE DRAFT HORSE 

Have a draft horse in the school yard for this lesson. 

Note the short legs, heavy body, short, thick neck, 
broad, deep chest and shoulders, strong hocks and rather 
large joints and feet. With the draft type weight is o^e 
of the most important considerations. A draft horse 
may weigh from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds. The heavy 
horse in harness brings greater power into the collar 
than does the light one. 

There are several different breeds of draft horses. 
The Pereherons, Belgians, Clydesdale, and English 
Shires are the common breeds. 

The following points any school boy should recognize 
in a good draft horse : 

1. The best selling colors are: bay, chestnut, brown, 
roan, black, and iron gray. 

2. Body conformation, massive, low-set, ample, very 
muscular, short-flanked, cylindrical, large and broad 
limbs, good feet, good face, ardor, and endurance. 

3. The horse should be at least sixteen hands high 
at the withers. 

4. The animal should be sound, and the following 
blemishes should always be in mind in examining a 
horse: Spavin, curb, thorough-pin, sidebones, splints, 
Sweeney, sprung knees, faulty hoofs, poor eyesight, 
string halt, poor wind, parrot mouth, blindness, etc. 

5. The horse should have good life but be gentle. 
While the horse is present for this lesson, some in- 
teresting and profitable measurements may be made. 



THE DRAFT HORSE 



75 



which should teach the pupils to recognize good pro- 
portions in the horse. 

Three important points for measurements are, length 
of the head, total length of the body, and the total 
height of the body. 




Fig. 25. A Perciieron Team 

Use an ordinary tape measure in this part of the 
exercise. 

1. The height of the horse, from the top of the 
withers to the ground. 

2. The height of the horse from the hips to the 
ground. 

3. Length of the body from the point of the elbow 
to the back of the buttock. 

4. The length of the head. 

It will be found in a horse of good proportions that 



7C LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

the first three measurements each equal about two and 
one-half times the length of the head. 

If we take the total length of the horse's head, and 
compare it with the body of a well formed horse, we 
will find that there are four other measurements al- 
most exactly equal to it as follows : 

1. The length of the neck from the top of the withers 
to the poll. If there is much difference between these 
measurements, we say that the head is too long or the 
neck is too short. 

2. The height of the shoulder from the top of the 
withers to the point of the elbow. 

3. The thickness of the body from the middle of 
the abdomen to the middle of the back. If there is a 
great variation in these measurements, we say the horse 
has poor form. 

4. The width of the body from one side to the other. 
A better instrument for taking the measurements of 

a horse, as suggested by Mr. Harper in the Cornell 
Rural School Leaflets, is as follows: A piece of soft 
white pine two inches wide, one-half inch thick, and 
four feet long ; to one end of this, and at right angles to 
it, tack a similar piece of pine 18 inches long; to the 
other end strap loosely an ordinary carpenter's square so 
that it may slide back and forth. Now mark off the 
long piece into inches, beginning at the inside of the 
right angle. 

' ' Ay ! gather your reins and crack your thong. 
And bid your steed go faster ; 
He does not know as he scrambles along. 
That he has a fool for a master.'' — Holmes. 



THE DEAFT HORSE 77 

The Horses' Plea 
Please give us water often. 

Please give us a moment's rest on the way up the hill. 
Please do not overload us. We are doing our best. 
Please do not use the whip. It is seldom necessary. 



^^J 




mBF^^i 


^^ ^Jf^^''''-m^l^f^M^M 


&( 







Fig. 26. Four F.^ithful Friends 

Please remember that we will respond to a word as 
quickly as to a blow. 

Please look out for our health, and don't work us 
when we are sick. 

Please see that we are properly shod. 

Please be sure that we have enough to eat, and that 
we are fed regularly. 

Please see that the harness fits, and does not chafe 
sore or tender spots. 

Please remember that two weeks' vacation each year 
will make us more serviceable and valuable. 

Remember, we ivork hard for you. 



78 LESSONS IN AGRICULTUEE 

LESSON XXIII 

THE DAIRY COW 

For this lesson bring a dairy cow into the school yard, 
and as the class observes the cow the teacher should 
speak briefly upon the following points. 

Cattle are kept for two main purposes ; for the pro- 
duction of milk and for the production of beef. These 
two purposes make different demands upon the energies 




Fig. 27. A Typical Jersey Cow 
of the animal, and thus through many generations of 
selection and development, there have arisen two types 
of cattle, the beef form or type, and the milk form or 
type. These two forms are not entirely distinct or 
separate, but they tend to merge into intermediate forms. 

The chief differences that distinguish the beef and 
dairy types are : 

1. Outline of bodv- 



THE DAIRY COW 



79 



2. Depth and smoothness of flesh. 

3. Size of udders. 

In the dairy type the general outline of body is 
wedge-shaped from before backward. This is due to 
a large development of the hind quarters, and sometimes 
to low thin shoulders. The height of the animal at the 
hip is from one-half to one inch greater than at the 
shoulders. The wedge-shaped appearance is increased 




<jU»^ 



0g^ 



Fig. 2S. a Typical Holsteix Cow 

by a large and pendulous abdomen, and by a large and 
well developed udder. In the dairy type there is less 
muscular development and more spare, angular appear- , 
ance. The animal may be fat enough and still present 
this spare appearance. In the dairy type the udder is 
much larger and fuller than in the beef type, and the 
so-called "milk-veins" stand out prominently. 



80 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



The dairy breeds are the Jersey, Guernsey, Ayrshire, 
Holstein, etc. 

While the cow is before the class the pupils should 
each score the animal, using the following score-card, 
which explains how the points should be marked: 



Score Card for Dairy Cows 



student's Name Date . . . 

Breed Age Weight . 



Description. 



IPerfectl Students' 
I Score. I Score. 



General — j 

Form — Wedge shaped, viewed from front, side 

and top 

Quality — Hair and skin fine and mellow, skin 

loose and thin 

Temperament — Nervous | 

Head and Neck — | 

Muzzle — Large and clean, nostrils large I 

Eyes — Large, brilliant full and mild | 

Face — Dishing and lean 

Forehead — Broad I 

Bars — Medium in size, fine in texture, with no | 

long, coarse hair 

Horns — Waxy, small, and fine in texture 

Neck — Fine, clean, with little or no dewlap.... 

Forequarters — 

Withers — Short, lean and thin 

Shoulders— Light, lean and oblique 

Legs — Short, straight and fine I 

Body — 

Chest — Deep, wide, girth large 

Bowel — Ribs arched, long, and wide apart; 

stomach large and roomy 

Back — Straight, lean; spines prominent and 

wide apart 

Loin — Broad 

Navel — Large | 

Hindquarters- — I 

Hips — Far apart, level I 

Rump — Long level I 

Pinbones and Thurlis — High, wide apart, and I 

prominent 1 

Tail — Reaching to hocks, fine I 

Thighs— Thin, long 

Escutcheon — High and spreading 1 

Udder — High behind, extending well forward in I 

front; quarters even; teats evenly placed; | 

udder not fleshy | 



8 

1 
1 
1 

1 

1 I 



THE BEEF COW 



81 



LESSON XXIV 
THE BEEF COW 

This lesson should follow Lesson 23, so that the com- 
parison of the two types may be brought out more 
clearly. The chief characteristics of the beef cow are 
as follows: 

In the beef form the outline of the body approaches 
the rectangular. The general contour of the top and 
bottom line is straight and parallel, and the general di- 




FiG. 29. Beef Type 

mensions of the body approximate those of a brick. In 
the best beef animal the whole body is thickly and 
smoothly covered with flesh, so that the angles of the 
bones are not prominent. The neck is short, and the 
whole body has a rounded appearance. In the beef type, 
not only is the udder small, but the veins leading from 



82 



LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 



it are small and more or less embedded in the surround- 
ing muscular and fatty tissue. 

The principg[l breeds are : Aberdeen- Angus, Gallo- 
ways, Shorthorn or Durham, Hereford, Sussex, etc. 

Use the following score card and judge the points 
in the animal before the class : 



Score Card for Beef Cattle 

student's Name Date 



Description. 


Perfect 
Score. 


Students' 
Score. 


General — 


10 

15 

15 
1 

1 

1 
1 

1 
1 
] 

1 

5 

1 

1 

6 

10 

3 

2 
1 
2 
2 






Form — Broad, deep and massive; top line and 




Quality — Hair rine, skin pliable, evenly fleshed, 
deep meated, especially in the valuable cuts. . 
Head and Neck — 

Forehead — Broad and full 








Muzzle — Mouth large, jaw wide, nostril large.... 




Horns — Medium in size, fine in texture, waxy.... 

Neck — Short and thick, with no loose skin 

Forequarters — 

Shoulder — Well covered with compact flesh on 
top and bottom, and smooth; shoulder vein 
filled out so as to make a smooth connection 




Brisket — Prominent, showing well forward of 




Dewlap — Should not have a surplus of loose skin. 
Legs — Short and straight, arms full and smooth. 
Body — 




Ribs — Arched, long, and thickly fleshed 

Back — Straight, broad, smooth, evenly and 








Flank— -Deep and full, making a straight un- 




Hindquarters — 
Rump — Long, wide and smooth, no bunches of 




Hips — Smooth and well covered with meat 
























Total 


100 









THE BEEF COW 



83 



LESSON XXV 

THE SHEEP 

Sheep raising is especially profitable, and it would be 
well to emphasize the study of this farm animal. Dis- 
cuss the following points about sheep : 




Fig. 30. A Southdown Ewe 

1. Sheep are found in almost every latitude, and 
they can find sustenance and thrive where other animals 
can scarcely live. 

2. Sheep provide man with meat and clothing, and 
are among the most profitable of animals. 

3. Sheep increase rapidly, mature early, furnish 
wholesome food, and improve the land on which they are 
pastured. 



84 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



4. Sheep are docile, rather easily handled, live on 
a great diversity of food, and require less grain than 
any other kind of live stock. 

5. Enough food is wasted on the ordinary farm to 
maintain a small flock of sheep. 

6. Sheep may l)e divided into two classes, wool breeds 
and mutton breeds. Of the wool breeds, American 




Fig. 31. A Cotswold Ewe 

]Merino, Delaine Merino, and Rambouillets are the stand- 
ard types. 

Of the mutton breeds. Southdown, Shropshire, Horned 
Dorset, and Cheviot are the standard types. 

Open the fleece of the sheep and observe the clean 
skin in which the fibres grow. These fibres are so rough 
that they keep the dirt to the outside. 

Wool is valuable in proportion to the length and 
evenness of the fibre and the density of the fleece. 

Answer the following questions: 



THE SHEEP 



85 



1. How many pounds ought a fleece of wool to 
weigh ? 

2. Which makes the better clothing, coarse or fine 
wool? 

3. Why are sheep washed before shearing ? 

4. Does cold weather trouble sheep. Wet weather? 
Use the following score card and mark the score for 

each sheep before the class : 

Score Card — Sheep 



Scale of Points. 



I Mutton Sheep. 
I Stand- I Students' 
I ard. I Score. 



Fine Wool Sheep. 

Stand- I Students' 

ard. Score. 



A. Age .... Teeth I 

B. General Appearance 

Weight — Estimated lbs. | 

Actual lbs. according | 

to age I 6 

Form, low, compact, symmet- ; 

rical I 6 

Quality, bone and wool fine I 7 

Constitution, as seen in girth, 

skin, and fleece I 10 

C. Head and Neck. I 
Muzzle, fine; mouth and nostrils 

of good size; lips thin 

Eyes, bright, full, whites clear.] 

Face, short ] 

Forehead, broad | 

Ears, fine, erect I 

Neck, thick, short ' 

D. Forequarters. | 
Shoulders, smooth, well covered.] 

Chest, wide, deep I 

Brisket, thick and carried well | 

forward | 4 | . 

LiCgs, straight, short, strong, well J I 

set, arm full, shank smooth.. 3 

E. Body. I 
Back and Loin straight and wide. I S 

Ribs well sprung, deep I 4 

Flanks low, making straight | | 

underline I 3 | . 

F. Hindquarters. | 

Hips well apart, smooth I 4 

Rump long, level, wide i .5 

Thighs full ! .5 

Twist plump, deep I 4 

Legs straight, short, strong; | 

shank smooth 3 

G. Wool. 

Quality fine, soft, clean, even.... 3 

Density great 3 

Length good 3 

Yolk I 1 



3 I. 



Total I 100 I 



Animal . 
Owner. 
Date. . . 



Breed 

Student 

Grade of Stud.ent . 



86 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

LESSON XXVI 

THE HOG 

For this lesson go to see some good breed of hogs, or 
have a good specimen brouglit to the school yard. 

The first point to mention is the hog's structural 
adaptation to the life he leads. The skeleton is heavy 
and low, allowing great accumulation of weight in flesh 
and fat. The snout is strong and tough for rooting, 
and the eyes are set below the ears, indicating his 
ground-feeding habits. 

The chief value of the hog is its production of meat, 
and if properly cared for, it will bring the farmer more 
money than any animal on the farm. 

The most desirable type of hog has short legs, ^eavy 
shoulders, small dished head, straight back and straight 
under-lines, and heavy hams. The "razor back" hogs 
are very unprofitable, and will not gain so rapidly under 
feeding. 

The following are some standard breeds of hogs : 

1. Chester White 5. Poland-China 

2. Yorkshire 6. Duroc-Jersey 

3. Tamworth 7. Cheshire 

4. Berkshire 8. Victoria. 

Hogs will do better when kept as little as possible in 
pens. But when they are kept in pens, cleanliness is 
most important to reduce the danger of disease. 

Score the hog, using the following score-card and 
marking the points : 



THE HOG 



87 



Score Card — Hog 



Scale of Points. 



I Students' 

[Standard | Score 



GENERAL APPEARANCE — 30 Points: 

1. Weight, score according to age 

2. Form deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, 

compact, standing squarely on legs 

3. Quality, hair silky; skin fine; bone fine; mel- 

low covering of flesh, free from lumps 
and wrinkles 

4. Condition, deep, even covering of Hesh, espe- 

cially in region of valuable cuts 

5. Temperament mild, quiet 

HEAD AND NECK — S Points: 

6. Snout, medium length, not coarse 

7. Eyes full, mild, bright 

8. Face short, cheeks full 

9. Ears fine, medium size, attached neatly 

10. Jowl strong, nest broad, firm 

11. Neck thick, medium length, smooth to 

shoulder 

FOREQUARTERS — 12 Points: 

12. Shoulder broad, deep, full, compact on top 

13. Breast advanced, wide 

14. Legs straight, short, strong; bones clean; 

pasterns upright; feet medium size 

BODY — 32 Points: 

1.5. Chest deep, broad, large girth 

16. Sides deep, lengthy, full; ribs close and 

well sprung 

17. Back broad, straight, thickly and evenly 

fleshed 

15. Loin wide, thick, straight 

19. Belly straight, even 

HINDQUARTERS — 18 Points: 

20. Hips wide apart, smooth 

21. Rump long, level, wide, evenly fleshed, 

straight 

22. Ham iieavily fleshed, plump, full, deep. wide.. 

23. Legs straight, short, strong; bone clean, pas- 

terns upright; feet medium size 



Total 



Animals 
Student 



Answer the following questions: 

1. At what age marketed? 

2. Average weight then? 

3. Average price? 

4. Symptoms of hog cholera? 

5. Good preventives? 

6. At the present price of corn and hogs, would it 
pay better to feed corn to hogs or sell it by the bushel? 



88 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

7. How many and what breeds in your community ? 

8. Do hogs like pasture ? 

9. What do hog raisers generally feed the hogs? 
How expensive is this feed as compared with feed for 
cattle or horses ? 

Problems 
1. A cow requires about 4 feet by 9 feet floor space 
for a stall, with 4 feet by 3 feet additional for a manger. 
How much floor space will be required for 20 cows? 




Fig. 32. A Poland-China 'Prize Winner 

2. Will it be better to stand the cattle in one long 
row, or in two rows of 10 each? 

3. If in two rows, would you have them face each 
other with the manger between, or face the wall? Why? 

4. What will be the dimensions of a barn for 20 
coAvs in two rows of 10 each, using the floor space given 
in the first problem? 

5. Draw a plan of this barn with cows facing each 



THE HOG 89 

other. With the cows facing the wall. What are the 
advantages and disadvantages of each plan? 

6. How many feet of 2-inch plank will it take to 
lay the floor in this barn? Find cost of same at $25. 
per thousand. 

7. What will be the cost of a cement floor for same at 
10 cents per square foot? 

8. Will "scrub" cattle require the same room? 
Note. In the following examples do not forget to add 

the value of the manure produced to the values of the 
product : 

9. If a cow eats 3 tons of hay worth $6 per ton, 
1,000 lbs. of ground feed worth 80 cents per ewt., and 
pasture amounting to $5 in a year, what does it cost a 
farmer to keep a cow? Will a "scrub" cow cost as 
much? 

10. A "scrub" cow will give 15 lbs. of milk, worth 
80 cents per cwt., daily for 300 days in the year, and 
raise a calf worth $3. What is the farmer's profit on 
her? 

11. A Jersey cow will give 25 lbs. of milk daily for 
the same time and raise a calf worth $5. What is 
the farmer's profit on her? 

12. How much more does he make on the Jersey 
than on the ' ' scrub ' ' ? 

13. If it costs 2 tons of hay, 40 bu. of oats and $6 
worth of pasture annually to raise a colt, what does it 
cost to raise a horse 4 years old with hay at $5 per ton 
and oats at 30 cents per bu. ? 



90 LESSONS IN AGEJCULTURE 

14. A "scrub" colt will bring about $80. Has the 
farmer lost or gained, and how much! 

15. A coach horse will bring $150 instead. What 
has the farmer gained or lost on this colt ? Which is the 
more profitable animal? 

16. If it takes 3 tons of hay worth $6 per ton, 50 
bu. oats worth 25 cents per bu., and $10 worth of pasture 
to keep 10 sheep for a year, what is the cost per head? 

17. If one ''scrub" sheep will shear about 4 lbs. 
of wool worth 20 cents per lb., and raise a lamb that 
will weight about 50 lbs. and bring about $3.50 per 
cwt., what will the entire flock return to the farmer? 
What will each sheep return? Will he gain or lose, 
and how much ? 

18. If of a good breed, each sheep will shear about 
8 lbs. of wool and raise a lamb weighing about 70 lbs., 
worth $5 per cwt., what will this flock return? Wh^t 
will each sheep return? 

19. How much per head will be the farmer's gain 
on a well-bred flock ? 

20. If it takes 12 bu. of corn worth 35 cents per 
bu. and $3 worth of other feed to raise a pig until it is 
six months old, what is the cost of the pig to the 
farmer ? 

21. If a "scrub," it will weigh about 125 lbs. at six 
months and bring $4 per cwt. Will the farmer gain oi 
lose? 

22. If a Poland-China, it will weigh about 200 lbs. 
and be worth $4.75 per cwt. What is the pig worth? 
Will the farmer gain or lose, and how much? 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 91 

23. How much more will the blooded pig bring on 
the market than the scrub? 



LESSON XXVII 

FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Purposes of feeding. — We have learned that we feed 
live stock to repair the waste in their bodies, to make 
them grow, to keep their bodies warm, to furnish energy 
for work, and to make special products — milk, eggs, wool, 
and the like. All animals wear out their muscles by work 
and exercise, and must have food to repair this waste or 
they will grow thin and poor. The harder the horses 
work, the more they must be fed. Young animals that 
are growing must not only eat to repair the waste, but 
they must have food to make them grow larger. The 
bodies of animals are kept warm by the food they eat. 
The strength of the horse and its power to do work must 
come from the food it eats. The food builds up the mus- 
cles, and strong muscles are necessary for work. Just 
as the fuel and water make the engine go, so food fur- 
nishes the heat and energy to "make the mare go." In 
addition to all these reasons for food, the dairy cow must 
have food out of which to make milk. When the pasture 
gets "short" in the summer, we notice the milk supply 
runs low. So, too, the sheep must have an extra supply 
of food out of which to make wool, and the hen requires 
special food from which to make eggs. 

Kinds of food needed. — Farm animals are a sort of 
factory, producing materials that we need. The horse 



93 LESSORS IN AGRICULTURE 

is a power house ; the cow is a milk factory ; the sheep, a 
wool factory; the hen, an egg factory, and the hog, a 
meat factory. In order to get these products from our 
animal factories, we must feed them the raw materials 
from which they can make these products. Herein lies 
the problem of the whole system of stock feeding. The 
farmer must determine the best and most economical food 
to be used in order to produce the desired results. 

Foods are divided into three classes: fats, protein, 
and carbohydrates. The following are examples of these 
foods : 

Fat meats, butter, lard, and all kinds of oils, come 
under the class of fats. The white of an egg is the best 
example of protein. The sticky part of flour, the princi- 
pal part of cheese, lean meat, glue, hides, hair, wool, and 
feathers, are largely protein. Starch, sugar, and vege- 
table fibre are the carbohydrates. The fats are usually 
included under carbohydrates also, and may thus be 
considered in these lessons. Carbohydrates are foods con- 
taining carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in combination. 
The protein foods differ from the carbohydrates in that 
they contain nitrogen in addition to other elements. 

Balanced rations, — All the common stock foods have 
more or less of the three kinds of materials mentioned 
above — fats, protein, and carbohydrates. A balanced 
ration is one that has the proper amount of protein and 
carbohydrates to secure the animal product desired. 
The balanced ration usually given for a dairy cow 
and a work horse is one in which there is about six 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 93 

times as much carbohydrates as protein. A "wide" ra- 
tion contains a larger proportion of carbohydrates, and 
a "narrow" ration, less. The table at the end of the 
lesson shows how much dry matter, fats, protein, and 
carbohydrates are in the different feeding stuffs. 

Special uses of the different foods. — The protein 
foods make bone, blood, and muscles. The carbohydrates 
are the fat producing foods. Carbohydrates make heat 
for the body. If muscle is to be built up, then protein 
foods must be fed. If the horses are fed only upon corn 
and timothy hay in the summer, they are getting too 
much fat and heat producing food, and not enough mus- 
cle forming food. Corn and timothy are rich in car- 
bohydrates. Oats and clover hay are rich in protein food 
material. In the spring it is muscle and energy that is 
wanted and not heat and fat. Protein foods are also re- 
quired to produce wool, milk, and eggs. Young growing 
animals should be fed plenty of protein food, with min- 
eral matter in it, to form bone and muscle. In most 
foods there is plenty of carbohydrates; the difficulty is 
to get the protein food in the proper balanced ration. To 
find the total amount of carbohydrate in any feeding 
stuff, multiply the fats given by 21/1, and add to the car- 
bohydrates. One pound of fat will produce 21/4 times 
as much heat as one pound of carbohydrates. The 
"nutritive ratio" is the proportion of protein to car- 
bohydrates. To find the nutritive ratio of any ration, 
divide the total amount of carbohydrates in the ration 
by the total amount of protein. 



94 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

Practical Exercises 

Note. The practical exercises on this subject follow 
as separate lessons. 

LESSON XVIII 

TEST FOR FOOD COMPOUNDS 

(a) To test for the presence of starch in such car- 
bohydrates as corn, oats, wheat, or rye, pulverize a few 
seeds, pour over them a little boiling water, let stand 
a short time, and add a drop of iodine. If the seeds 
contain starch the water will turn blue or black in a 
short time. If the seeds contain sugar it may be de- 
tected by chewing them slowly and thoroughly. A 
sweet taste will indicate the presence of sugar. 

(b) To test for protein, remove the germ from a 
kernel of corn and scorch it on the stove. If it gives 
off the odor like that of burning feathers, it contains 
protein. All seeds contain protein. Test other seeds 
for protein. 

(c) To test for fats or oil, crush seeds or nuts on a 
piece of clean white paper. Heat the paper gently, be- 
ing careful not to scorch it. The grease spot that ap- 
pears will indicate the presence of oil. 

It might be a profitable exercise to make collections 
of feeding stuffs, and classify them into fats, protein, and 
carbohydrates. 



RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS 95 

LESSON XXIX 
DETERMINING RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS 

The following formula illustrates the method of find- 
ing the nutritive ratio : 

Carbohydrates+ ( fat X 2.25 ) 

:=nutritive ratio. 

protein 

For example, suppose we wish to find the nutritive 
ratio of the following ration: (Horse weighing 1,000 
pounds, doing medium work.) 

Timothy hay 15 pounds 

Corn 10 pounds 

Cotton-seed meal 3 pounds 

Solution : 

In 100 pounds of timothy hay there is 86.8 lbs. 
dry matter, 2.8 protein, 43.4 carbohydrates, and 1.4 
fat. (See table below.) 
In 15 pounds hay there are : 

15-100 of 86.8 dry matter, 13.02 pounds. 

15-100 of 2.8 protein, .42 pounds. 

15-100 of 43.4 carbohydrates, 6.51 pounds. 

15-100 of 1.4 fat, .21 pounds. 
In 10 pounds corn there are : 

10-100 of 89.1 dry matter, 8.91 pounds. 

10-100 of 7.9 protein, 7.9 pounds. 

10-100 of 66.7 carbohydrate, 6.67 pounds. 

10-100 4.3 fat, .43 pounds. 
In 3 pounds cotton-seed meal there are : 

3-100 of 91.5 dry matter, 2.74 pounds. 

3-100 of 38.1 protein, 1.14 pounds. 



96 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



3-100 of 16.0 carbohydrate, .48 pounds. 
3-100 of 12.6 fat, .378 pounds. 



I I Carbo- 

I Dry matter I Protein | hydrate 



Timothy, 15 lbs 

Corn, 10 lbs 

Cottonseed meal, 3 lbs. 



13.02 1 


.42 


6.51 


S.91 I 


.79 


0.67 


2.74 1 


1.14 


.48 



1- 

24 . 67 I 



.21 
.43 
.378 



13.66 I 



1.018 



Substituting in the formula given above, 
13.66-f (1.018X2.25) 



2.35 



=6+. Nutritive ratio is 1 to 6. 



This is a proper ratio for the horse referred to 
above. One-fourth for breakfast, one-fourth for dinner 
and one-half for supper would be the proper division of 
his ration. 

Problem. — Find the nutritive ratio for 15 lbs. of clover 
hay and 5 pounds of oat straw, and 10 pounds of oats. 

Stock Foods — Average of Digestible Nutrients 



NAME OF FOOD 
Digestive nutrients in 100 
pounds 






OX 



Green food and ensilagi 

Corn fodder 

Rye fodder 

Kentucky bluegrass 

Red clover 

Cowpea vines 

Corn ensilage 

Hay and dry fodders — 

Corn stover 

Timothy hay 

Red clover 

Cowpea vine hay . 

Oat straw 

Wheat straw 

Grain and other seed — 

Corn 

Oats 

Cowpcas 

Mill products — 

Corn meal 

Wheat bran 

Cottonseed meal . . 



20.7 


1.0 


0.4 


11.6 


23.4 


2.1 


0.4 


14.1 


34.9 


3.0 


0.8 


19.8 


29.2 


2.9 


0.7 


14.8 


16.4 


1.8 


0.2 


8.7 


20.9 


0.9 


0.7 


11.3 


59.5 


1.7 


0.7 


32.4 


86.8 


2.8 


1.4 


43.4 


84.7 


7.6 


2.0 


38.4 


89.3 


10.8 


1.1 


39.0 


90.8 


1.2 


0.8 


38.6 


90.4 


0.4 


0.4 


30.3 


89.1 


7.9 


4.6 


66.7 


89.0 


9.2 


4.2 


47.3 


87.8 


20.0 


0.8 


53.2 


85.0 


5.5 


3.5 


63.8 


88.1 


12.2 


2.7 


39.2 


91.5 


38.1 


12.6 


16.0 



RATIONS FOE FAEM ANIMALS 97 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 
Farmers' Bulletins. 

No. 22. — The Feeding of Farm Animals. 
No. 36. — Cotton Seed and Its Products. 
No. 49.- — Sheep Feeding. 
No. 58. — The Soy Bean as a Forage Crop. 
No. 170. — The principles of Horse Feeding. 

Protein and Carbohydrates in Feed 

Pounds per Bushel. 

Kind of Food. Protein. Carbohydrates. 

Dry peas 10 32 

Rye 5 39 

Barley 4 32 

Corn 31/2 40 

Oats 3 19 

Table showing approximate amounts of protein and carbo- 
hydrates required daily by farm animals of average size: 

Animal. Protein. Carbohydrates. 

Dairy cow 2 lbs. 12 lbs. 

Work horse 2 lbs. 12 lbs. 

Calves under 1 year .... 1 lb. 6 lbs. 

Pigs, growing 1/2 lb. 2i/'2 lbs. 

Lambs, growing 1-5 lb. 1 lb. 

Note: This amount varies with the size and age of 
the animal. Fattening stock can be profitably fed a 
greater allowance of carbohydrates in the form of grain, 
like corn and barley. 

Problems 

1. How many pounds of protein in a bushel of oats? 
With oats at 30 cents per bushel, what does this pro- 
tein cost per pound, disregarding the carbohydrates ? 

2. How many pounds protein in a bushel of barley? 



98 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

With barley at 44 cents per bushel, what does protein 
in this form cost per pound ? 

3. Wliich is the cheaper feed at these prices? How 
much ? 

4. What is the cost per pound of protein in rye at 
60 cents per bushel? 

5. What is the cost per pound of protein in corn at 
35 cents per bushel? 

6. At the above prices which is the cheapest feed? 

7. Which is probably the best feed for fattening 
purposes ? Why ? 

8. Suppose all kinds of hay sell at the uniform price 
of $8 per ton. What is the price of protein per pound 
in each of the four kinds of hay given above? 

9. Which is the cheapest feed? 

10. What is the best kind of straw to feed, and 
why? How do we find the "nutritive ratio"? What 
is the nutritive ratio of clover hay? Is it a balanced 
ration ? 

11. Find the nutritive value of all the feeds given 
in the tables. 

12. Which are most nearly "perfect" feeds — i. e., 
which have a ratio of about 6 to 1 ? 

18. Which are the poorest feeds — i. e., which have the 
lowest ratio of protein ? , 

14. Which are the feeds having the largest propor- 
tion of proteins ? 

15, Are any of the feeds given in the table so poor 
that, in themselves, they are practically worthless? If 
so, name them. 



EATIONS FOE FARM ANIMALS 99 

Illustration. — One ton of mixed hay contains 88 lbs. 
protein and 880 lbs. carbohydrates. Its ratio is 1 to 10. 
Let us mix it with some other feed to bring the ratio 
up to ahout 1 to 6. We shall try peas. We shall feed 
1 bu. of ground peas with every hundred lbs. of hay. 

Feed. Protein. Carbohydrates. 

100 lbs. hay contain 4.4 44 

60 lbs. peas contain. . . .' 10. 32 

160 lbs. mixed contain. . . 14.4 76 

Dividing weight of carbohydrates by that of protein 

(76 by 14.4) we get a ratio of about 1 to 5. We have 

more protein than we need. Let us try again with i/^ bu. 

of peas instead. 

Feed. Protein. Carbohydrates. 

100 lbs. hay contain 4.4 44 

30 lbs. peas contain. ... 5. 16 

130 lbs. mixed contain. . . 9.4 60 

Again dividing (60 by 9.4) we get 6.3, about right, 
and a much cheaper feed. Now, how much of this ration 
shall we feed to a dairy cow? The table shows us that 
a cow needs about 2 lbs. protein daily, so this will be 
about enough for five days. One-fifth of each feed will 
give us as a result 20 lbs. of hay and 6 lbs. of peas for 
the daily ration. 

16. With the ration given in the illustration, how 
long will a ton of hay last a cow? 

17. How many bushels of ground peas will be re- 
quired in the same time? 

18. What will it cost to feed the cow for this time 
with hay at $7 per ton and peas at $1 per bushel? 



100 LE8S0NS IN AGETCULTURE 

19. Suppose she gives 25 pounds of milk daily on 
this ration. With milk at $1.20 per cwt., what is 
gained 1 

20. Make a ration of clover hay and corn in the 
same way and figure its cost. 

LESSON XXX 
THE DAIRY 

Dairy products. — The products of the dairy are milk, 
butter, and cheese. There is scarcely a man, woman, or 
child in the civilized world who does not use every day 
in some form the products of the dairy. The farmer who 
has only one cow, and uses her milk for butter or for 
drinking, has a dairy, but we usually think of dairies 
as places where cows are kept in stables and fed all their 
feed in mangers and milked to supply a city popula- 
tion. However, most of the milk is produced on farms, 
and a large part of the butter is made there also. The 
use of the cream separator is increasing on the farm. 
By this machine the cream is separated from the milk 
soon after it is brought from the cow, and only the 
cream need be hauled to the factory, if the farmer 
is selling it. The cream separator enables the farmer 
to get more butter than by any other method. 

Cleanliness. — In the dairy the most important item 
is cleanliness. There is probably no other item of food 
more difficult to keep clean than milk. The dirt which 
we eat in milk and butter would astonish us, if we 
could see it separated. Good, pure, sweet milk is essen- 



THE DAIRY 



101 



tial both for health and for profit on the market. Bad 
flavors and bad odors in milk are caused by the cows 
eating improper food and drinking impure water, and 
by uncleanliness on the part 
of the dairyman in handling 
the milk. 

Essentials in caring for 
milk. — In another lesson we 
shall speak of little plants 
called bacteria, which live at 
the roots of the legumes and 
take nitrogen from the air 
to help make the plant food. 
In this lesson we are to 
learn of another kind of 
bacteria living in milk and 
causing it to sour. In the 
first place, milk sours because 
bacteria from the air fall into 
it, begin to grow, and 
soon change the sugar of the 
milk to an acid. 

These bacteria are in the air, in water, in barn dust, 
on bits of hay, and on the cow. They are most plentiful 
in sour milk, and if we should pour a little sour milk 
into the fresh milk the latter would sour more quickly. 
The same thing happens when people put fresh milk 
into poorly cleaned pails. It follows that all utensils 
used in the dairy should be thoroughly scalded so as to 
Mil all the germs that cause the milk to sour quickly. 




Fig. 33. A Cream Sefabatob 



102 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

Not only do these germs, which cause the souring of 
the milk, get into it, but the germs of consumption and 
typhoid fever will also live in milk, and thus endanger 
the health and lives of all who drink it. The following 
precautions in the care of milk should be known to all 
who supply us with this valuable food: 

1. Avoid pitching hay or making beddings or sweep- 
ing in the barn soon before milking time, if the cows 
are to be milked in the barn, for more germs fall into 
the milk if the air is full of dust. 

2. The milker should wear clean clothes, should have 
clean hands, and should never wet his hands with 
the milk. 

3. For greater cleanliness and safety the milkman 
should curry the sides of the cow, and moisten the parts 
nearest him to prevent dust from falling from the cow 
into the milk. 

4. The first few streams of milk from each teat 
should be thrown away, because the milk at the mouth 
of the teat has been exposed to the air, is full of germs, 
and will cause the rest of the milk to sour sooner. 

5. Every vessel used in the handling of the milk 
should be scrupulously clean. 

6. The surface of the milk should not be left exposed 
to the air of the cellar, living rooms, or any place where 
dust and germs may fall into it. 

7. To test for formalin in milk, add a few drops of 
ferric chloride, then pour sulphuric acid into the milk, 
letting it run down the side of the glass. A purple 



THE DAIRY 



103 



color at the junction of the milk and acid, indicates 
the presence of formalin. 

8. Promptly cool and aerate the milk to prevent de- 
velopment of bacteria. 

9. The cows should be healthy, especially as related 
to tuberculosis. 

10. The stables should be well lighted and ventilated. 




Courtesy Edgewood Farm. 
Fig. 34. A Model Cow Barn 

Testing and selecting the cows. — The butter that 
milk will produce comes from the butter-fat that it con- 
tains. It is, therefore, important that the milk from 
each cow of a herd test well in butter fat, as well as be 
abundant in quantity. In general, no cow is paying 
her board bill whose milk tests much less than 3 per cent 
of butter-fat; neither is one which is giving less than 
twelve pounds daily. Every farmer should own a good 



10-i LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 

cream separator, in order to get the maximum amount 
of cream and butter-fat that the herd produces, and 
also a Babcock tester, to ascertain whether his cows are 
yielding the highest percentage of butter-fat. A dis- 
cussion of the Babock tester will follow in the practical 
exercises. 

Practical Exercises 
Note . The practical exercises for this lesson follow 
as separate lessons in the series. 

LESSON XXXI 

COMPOSITION OF MILK 

Learn the following facts about milk: 

Milk consists of about seven-eighths water and one- 
eighth substances in solution in the water, or floating 
in it in very small particles. You may be surprised 
to learn that so large a proportion of milk is water. 
This is true ilot only of milk but of many of our most 
important foods. 

The constituents of milk are often referred to as 
water and total solids ; fat, casein, albumen, sugar, and 
ash. A chemist can separate these substances with great 
accuracy, but by the following methods we can make a 
gross analysis: 

1. Leave a little milk in a saucer for a short time 
in a warm place. The water will evaporate and leave 
the solids in dry form. 

2. Separation of fat. Let a quart of fresh milk 
quietly stand in a shallow pan, in a cool place, until 
a layer of cream gathers at the top. This cream is 



COMPOSITION OF MILK 105 

formed by the rising of tiny globules of butter-fat, 
which were distributed evenly through the fresh milk. 
The fat is so much lighter than the liquid in which it 
floats that it will rise in the cream layer in about 
twelve hours. This fat is a constituent of butter and 
of some forms of cheese. 

3. Separation of casein. Add a few drops of acid, 

<^^ ; o /6 o ? o ^^ 6-/^-6s6 «• '-° '^ ^ 



o 
» o 
oo 
o 






8&-;o°°°ofc^ Oo'°-t::^' 



o °-^ ^ °o bo 

Cuunenu uf B. F.. Johnson Pub. Co. 
a. Pure. b. Bacteria. 

PIG. 35. Pure and Impure Milk 

vinegar will do, to the skimmed milk. Soon it will 
thicken. Gently warm it now to about one hundred 
degrees and carefully break the thickened surface with 
a knife, and the skimmed milk will be seen to separate 
into curd and whey. Now strain through a cloth, and 
the casein will remain in the cloth, while the whey, 
passes through. This casein is one of the principal 
parts of cheese. 

4. Separation of albumen. Slowly heat the whey 
to 160 degrees Fahrenheit. It will become cloudy and 
soon a soft jelly-like substance will collect on the sur- 



106 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 




i:; 



face. This is the albumen. This can now 
be separated by straining. 

5. Separation of sugar. Take a small 
quantity of the whey from which the albu- 
men has been separated, place in a saucer 
and warm gently until the water has been 
evaporated. A dry substance remains. 
This is about seven-eighths milk-sugar and 
one-eighth ash. 

6. Separation of ash. It will not be 
possible to separate the ash and sugar in 
pure form. Heat the mixture in a dish or 
on the stove cover, and allow to burn as 




Fig. 36. The Constituents of a Quart of Milk 
Water Fat Casein Albumen Sugar Ash 

87 per cent 4 per cent 2.6 per cent .7 per cent 5 per cent .7 per cent 
29.93 oz. 1.38 oz. .89 oz. .24 oz. 1.72 oz. .24 oz. 



long as it will. The small residue left is the milk ash. 
(Adapted from Cornell Rural School Leaflet.) 



THE BABCOCK TEST 



107 



LESSON XXXII 




OpCQ. 



THE BABCOCK TEST 

If the school can not be provided with a Babcock 
tester, this lesson will have to be omitted. The lesson 
is such an important one, and the ownership of a Bab- 
cock tester by the school 
would be such a valuable 
thing for the whole commu- 
nity, that the teacher should 
make every effort to get the 
material for this lesson. 

Because of its simplicity, 
accuracy, and ease of opera- 
tion, the Babcock test has be- 
come the standard test for de- 
termining the value of milk 
and cream as delivered to the 
cheese factories, creameries, 
and all milk stations over this 
country. 

Complete directions for 
using come with every ma- 
chine, and it will not be nec- 
essary to give them here. Ob- 
serve great care for accuracy. 
Have some pupil bring a sample of milk from one of 
the cows at home. The sample should be taken after 
the milking is done, and the milk has been poured two 
or three times from one vessel to another so as to be 




FIG. 37. 



Closed. 

A Babcock Tester 



108 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

thoroughly mixed. Take about a half cupful as a sam- 
ple and put it into a clean bottle. From this bottle the 
sample is drawn for testing, after mixing the contents 
of the bottle thoroughly. 

Having determined the per cent of butter-fat in the 
sample, an estimate can be made of the total amount 
of butter-fat in a gallon of milk. (A gallon weighs 
81/4 pounds.) 

Make many tests of the same cow's milk to determine 
its richness. A pound of butter-fat should make, in 
ordinary practice, about 1.1 pounds of butter, and the 
pupils can compare the price paid for butter and for 
the butter-fat, if sold at the creameries, and determine 
which method of sale is better. 

If the school is in a dairy district, this lesson will 
furnish work for several weeks, and be profitable to 
patrons as well as to pupils. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture 
Farmers' Bulletins. 

No. 29.— Souring of Milk and Other Changes in Milk 
Products. 

No. 42. — Facts about Milk. 

No. 55. — The Dairy Herd: Its Formation and Management. 

No. 57. — Butter Making on the Farm. 

No. 63. — Care of Milk on the Farm. 

No. 151. — Dairying in the South. 

No. 166. — Cheese Making on the Farm. 

No. 201. — The Cream Separator on Western Farms. 

Problems 

1. How many pounds of butter-fat in 5,000 pounds 
of milk that tests 4 per cent? 

2. A farmer owns a herd of 15 cows that average 
24 pounds of milk per head daily. How many pounds 
of milk does he get in six months (thirty days each) ? 



THE BABCOCK TEST 109 

3. If this milk tests 3.5 per cent, and butter-fat is 
worth 25 cents per pound, what does he receive monthly 
for his milk? How much per head? 

4. A farmer has a herd of 20 cows. The milk for 
the week weighs as follows: 420 lbs., 418 lbs., 408 lbs., 
422 lbs., 417 lbs., 432 lbs. and 423 lbs., respectively. It 
tests 5 per cent of butter-fat, the price of which is 30 
cents per pound. How much do the cows average per 
head in money for this week. 

5. A farmer hauls 43,250 lbs. of milk that tests 3.8 
per cent to a factory. The price of butter-fat is 26 
cents per pound. • How much money should be receive? 

6. A farmer owns six cows: Bess, Spot, Brindle, 
Bos, Kate and Red. 

Bess gives 22 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 3.8%, 

Spot gives 15 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 4.2%, 

Brindle gives 30 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 3.0%, 

Bos gives 20 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 3.0%, 

Kate gives 14 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 3.2%, 

Red gives 24 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 5.2%. 

Figure out the dairy value of each. Which is the best 
cow ? The poorest one ? Classify them in order of dairy 
value. 

7. Figure out the number of pounds of milk given 
by each cow in a month, and the value of it in butter- 
fat at 25 cents per pound. 

8. Three herds of ten cows each are compared : The 
Friesians average 30 lbs. of milk each daily ; and the 
scrub herd averages 10 lbs. daily. The Jerseys test 5.4 



110 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 

per cent; the Holstein-Friesians test 3.2 per cent; and 
the scrubs test 3 per cent. Which is the more valuable 
herd? 

9. With butter-fat at 30 cents per pound, what is 
the monthly average per cow of each herd? 

LESSON XXXIII 

POULTRY 

Poultry-raising as a business. — Much is being writ- 
ten in the farm journals and popular magazines about 
poultry raising, and many "get-rich-quick" schemes 
are proposed through various systems. Much of this 
poultry interest comes to naught. Nevertheless, poul- 
try, if properly handled, will yield large returns, both 
on the farm and in the city lot. Poultry raising 
has not been given sufficient attention on many Ameri- 
can farms. Fresh eggs and well-fattened young fowls 
are always in demand, and bring a high price on the 
market. The proceeds from the sale of eggs and 
poultry are no small item of the farm income. Poultry 
raising is a profitable business when thoughtfully and 
intelligently pursued. 

Care of poultry. — The care of poultry, as in the case 
of other farm animals, must include the proper feed- 
ing and shelter. When fowls are left to roam and seek 
their food at will, they will get a balanced ration among 
the seeds and insects, and need but little care along 
this line. If they are confined, however, the food must 
be studied and properly provided. They must be fed 



POULTEY 



111 



egg-producing foods. They must have access to grit, 
oyster shells, charcoal, sand, ground bone and the like, 
to be used in grinding their food, and out of which to 
make egg shells. They must have food rich enough in 
protein, such as meat scraps, skim-milk, alfalfa meal, 
scratch-food, and table-scraps. Green foods like beets, 
cabbage, turnips, and silage should be given them in 
the winter. They should have an abundance of fresh 




Fig. 38. Colony Poultry Houses 

water. Hens fed entirely on corn will not lay well, 
because corn is a fat and heat-producing food, and eggs 
are made mostly of protein food. 

The poultry houses. — Two systems of housing fowls 
are in use by poultry men and farmers : ( 1 ) The colony 
house, and (2) the continuous apartment house. Each 
system has its advantages. Expensive poultry houses 
are not necessary for success with poultry. The chief 



112 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

requirements are: (1) A well-drained soil. (2) Houses 
should face, the south or southeast, as the coldest winds 
are thus shut otf and the most sunshine is secured. (3) 
Cleanliness is absolutely necessary. Houses should be 
constructed so that they can be sprayed or whitewashed 
easily. The best method is to have every thing remov- 
able so that scalding water and sunshine can be used 
as cleansing agents when necessary. Feed hoppers, 
nest racks and other appliances should hang on the wall 
or stand on blocks. (4) Ventilation should be secured 
either by open-front houses or by some ventilator of 
approved design. (5) There should be no draft on the 
fowls at night. Perches should be placed in the most 
protected parts of the house. (6) Since exercise is 
necessary, both for egg production and for health, a 
place for scratching should be provided — a place where 
they can get to dry dirt and wallow in it. Dust acts as 
a sort of insect powder, filling up the insects' breathing 
pores, and thus keeps the chickens free from lice. The 
chickens may be forced to exercise by scratching in 
chaff or straw for their food, or jumping for bites of 
cabbage or beets hanging over them. 

Breeds of fowls. — The varieties of fowls selected for 
farm use will depend largely on the purposes for which 
they are grown. Breeds such as the Leghorns and 
Minorcas are desirable for their laying qualities; the 
Brahmas and Cochins, for their meat ; and the Plymouth 
Rock, the Wyandottes, and the Orpingtons, for general 
purposes, giving good returns both as layers and for 
meat production. The bulletins named below will be 



POULTRY 



113 



of value to the student, and to the practical poultry 
raiser. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 
Farmers' Bulletins. 

No. 51. — Standard Varieties of Chickens. 

No. 64. — Ducks and Geese, Breeds, and Management. 

No. 141. — Poultry Eaising on the Farm. 

No. 177. — Squab Raising. 

No. 200. — Turkeys, Varieties, and Management. 




Fig. 39. Hens Need Shade During Hot Summer 
Problems 

1. A flock of 60 hens average 80 eggs a year each. 
With eggs worth 15 cents per dozen, what is the value 
of these eggs? 

2. How many bushels of corn will this buy at 40 
cents per bushel ? Of oats at 25 cents ? 

3. Suppose it takes only 12 bushels of corn, 5 bushels 
of oats and $7 worth of other food to keep this flock for 
one year, besides what they pick up for themselves. 
What is the profit over and above the cost of the feed? 



114 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

4. What would have been the profit if they had 
laid 120 eggs each, instead of 80 ? 

5. Ask pupils to furnish data for at least twenty- 
other similar problems. 

LESSON XXXIV 
1. A STUDY OF FEATHERS 

Have a fowl in the schoolroom a few hours before the 
lesson is given. Encourage the children to find out as 
many facts as they can for themselves before the school 
opens for work. Direct the observations of the pupils 
by a few questions, as : the kind of feathers ; the location 
of the different kinds ; any part of the body not covered 
with feathers. Suggest a little competition by asking 
which boy or girl can give the greatest number of facts 
from his observation of the feathers of the fowl. 

At class time, the teacher should remove the fowl from 
the coop and hold it firmly by the legs to prevent fright 
and injury. Allow the children to come near. 

1. Have the pupils feel the difference between the 
heat of the fowl's body beneath the feathers and on the 
outside of the feathers. Explain. Bring out the point 
that the feathers are non-conducting. What purpose 
does this serve the fowl ? 

2. Spread the wings and tail so that the different 
feather sections may be seen. Note that in the wing 
and tail, one feather overlaps the other so that eacn 
feather braces the other in flight. 

3. Observe the lighter wing feathers (the sec- 



STUDY OF FEATHERS 115 

ondaries) tucked under the heavier feathers (the pri- 
maries). What kind of feathers are in the tail? Are 




Fig 40. The Feathers of a Chicken 

Showing their relative size, shape and position. 1. Neck hackle. 
2. Breast. 3. Wing shoulder covert. 4. Wing tlight covert. 5. Wing 
primary. 6. Wing secondary. 7. Wing covert. 8. Back. 9. Cushion. 
10. Main tail. 11. Fluff. 12. Thigh. 

they different from those of the wing? What use do 
the tail feathers serve? 

4. Notice how the back feathers overlap each other. 
Why this arrangement? If the feathers shed easily 
without pain to the fowl, take out a feather from each 



116 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTUEE 



of the following places and fasten on a sheet of paper 
for comparison: 1. Neck feather; 2. Breast feather; 3. 
Wing shoulder covert ; 4. Wing flight covert ; 5. Wing 
primary ; 6. Wing secondary ; 7. Wing covert ; 8. Back ; 
9. Cushion; 10. Main tail; 11. Fluff; and 12. Thigh. See 
figure for corresponding numbers. 

4. Make drawing sketches of these feathers. 

5. Make a drawing of a large primary feather, and 
name the parts: fluff, tip, quill, barb, and web. 

LESSON XXXV 

2. THE EGG 

Each pupil in the class should bring a few eggs to 
form, a collection for this lesson. 

1. Tabulate in the note-book the record of the collec- 
tion as follows : 

(Number each egg with ink on the shell.) 



Size I weight I Forn, | ^,"^6^ I ^^'^ I "e^"' 



The 
Brped 



2. After this data has been recorded, a small hole 
might be broken in each end of the egg, the blow pipe 
or straw inserted, and the contents blown out, so that 
the egg shell may be preserved in a neat box as part of 
an interesting collection. From time to time, pupils 
might be encouraged to get the shells from the eggs 



THE EGG 117 

that are used at home to add to the collection. The 
contents of the eggs, blown, should be held in saucers, 
one to each pupil. 

3. Observe the structure of the raw eggs in the 
saucers. Find the ''germinal disc" which appears as a 
light colored spot, usually on the upper surface of the 
yolk. This germ spot contains the life principle of the 
egg. Note the whitish cords of denser albumen which 
serve to keep the yolk properly suspended in the white 
of the egg. 

Note the clear, watery appearance of the white of 
the egg. This is the albumen, the food in liquid form 
upon which the young chick lives while in the shell. (If 
the contents do not come out whole, another egg must be 
broken for this part of the lesson.) 

4. The chemical composition of the dry substance 
of the inside of the egg is ( Snyder : Poultry Book. ) : 

Protein. Fat, 

White (albumen) 88.92 .53 

Yolk 20.62 64.43 

5. Make a drawing of the egg shell obtained above. 

6. If it is not possible to boil the eggs at the school, 
ask each pupil to bring a boiled egg for this part of the 
study. 

Carefully remove the shell piece by piece. Observe 
the air space, and the two membranes beneath the shell. 
Cut the egg lengthwise through the middle, and make 
a drawing of the section, showing all the points men- 
tioned in paragraph 3. 



DECEMBER 

On the farm. — December is a good month for the 
farmer to balance his books and see whether his manage- 
ment has been profitable or unprofitable. The success- 
ful farmer will know whether each field is yielding up 
to the standard every year. He will know whether 
his farm animals are paying their board. He will know 
how much money he should spend and how much he 
should save to be progressive. To be able to manage 
the farm as a successful merchant does his business, the 
farmer must keep records and books in some simple and 
accurate way. 

LESSON XXXYI 

FARM ACCOUNTS 

Keeping accounts. — Every farmer should keep 
accounts. Often it is desirable to know how much cash 
is received and paid out during the year. A simple 
cash account will show this. All kinds of accounts re- 
quire two columns. The columns may be placed side by 
side, with double ruling down the center of the page, 
dividing them. This method will be used in this lesson. 
The following explanation of the cash account system is 
taken from Hatch's Elementary Agriculture with Prac- 
tical Arithmetic : 

Cash accounts. — In keeping a cash account the word 
cash is first written across the top of the page. All 

118 



FARM ACCOUNTS 



119 



cash received is placed in the cash space in the left- 
hand side, and all cash paid out is placed in the cash 
space in the right-hand side. At the extreme left of 
each side the date is placed, and between the date and 
the cash space the item, for which cash has been re- 
ceived or paid, is written. The total amount of cash 
received, or paid out, is easily found by adding the 
amounts on each side, and the difference of these two 
sums represents the cash on hand. Cash on hand should 
be carried over into the received side at the top of the 
next page, when any page is filled up with entries. If it 
is desired, the totals may be carried over into their 
respective columns instead, and the new page kept in 
exactly the same way as the preceding page. This is all 
there is in keeping a cash account. It is a very simple 
and easy thing to do. For example : 

Cash 



Date 
1905 

1 


Item 


Rec'd 

1 


Date 
1005 

1 1 


Item 


Paid 

1 


Jan. 


1 


Cash on hand. . 


$ 24 


40 


i 

: Jan. 

1 


2 


Groceries 


$ 3 


00 


Jan. 


3 


For hogs 


102 


75 


1 

! Jan. 

1 


15 


For coal 


14 


40 


Jan. 


30 


For butter . . . 


42 


84 


j Jan. 

11 


IT 


For book.s .... 


5 


00 


Feb. 


1 


For eggs 


2 


25 


ll 

11 Jan. 

11 

11 

! i Feb. 


20 
1 


For overcoat . . 
For rubbers. . . 


12 


00 
75 



Balance the above account and determine how much 
cash is on hand Feb. 1, 1905. 

Personal accounts. — In a personal account the name 
of the person is written across the top of the page, and 



120 



LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 



the record is kept as in the cash account. Whenever 
the person against whom the account is made receives 
anything, an entry is made on the left-hand side under 
the word debtor, and when he pays anything on this 
account, this entry is made on the right-hand side under 
the word creditor. The following example is taken from 
Hatch 's Agriculture : 




Fig. 41. Good Materi.\l fok a I'roduce Account 
John Smith 



Date 

1905 


Item 


Dr. 


Date 
1905 


Item 


Cr. 


Sept. 


22 


To 1 pig .... 


$12 


50 


Oct. 


3 


By 3 dys' wk. 


$ 4 


■0 












Oct. 


10 


By cash 


2 


CO 












Oct. 


25 


By 1 d'y"s wk. 


1 


50 












Oct. 


30 


By bal. cash. 


4 


50 








$12 


50 








$12 


50 



Produce accounts. — A produce account is a record 
of the receipts and expenditures on certain crops or 
animals. Suppose that you wanted to keep an account 



FAEM ACCOUNTS 



131 



of your chickens. The word chickens is written across 
the top of the page. AVhenever there are any expendi- 
tures made for the chickens, this is entered on the left- 
hand side of the page under dehtor. Whenever the 
chickens return an income in the form of eggs or young 
chickens, this entry is made on the right, under the 
word creditor. The account below is taken from Hatch's 
book: 

Chickens 



Date 

1905 Item 




1 

Date 
Dr. 1905 


Item 


Cr. 


May 


1 


To I'mb'., 


c'ps. 


$ 3 


20 


May 
June 


30 
30 


By 


e'gs f'r mo 
e'gs f'r mo. 


$ 2 

1 


50 
80 


June 


2 


To feed 






75 


July 


30 


By 


e'gs f'r mo. 


2 


10 


June 


30 


To corn 


meal . 


- 


40 


Oct. 


1 


By 


y'g ch'kens. 


6 


00 


Aug. 


1 


To corn 




3 


00 


1 Oct. 


1 


By 


yg. ch. etn . 


3 


00 














Oct. 


1 


By 


eggs e't'n . . 


4 


00 


Oct. 


1 


Profit . . 




10 


05 


1 


















$19 40 










$19 


40 1! 











What does the above account show as to profit or loss 
on the investment? 



LESSON XXXVII 
1. THE YEAR'S ACCOUNT BY MONTHS 

Prepare twelve pages in your agricultural note-book, 
one for each month of the year. Use the cash account 
system as shown below : 



122 



LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 
Cash 



Date 1 

1905 1 Item 


Rec'd i 


Date 1 

1905 1 Item 


Paid 


Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 


1 

3 

30 


Cash on hand. 

For hogs 

For butter .... 


$ 24 
102 
42 


40 
7. J 

84 


Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 


2 Groceries 

15 For coal 

17 1 For books .... 


$ 3 

14 

5 


00 
40 
00 



Beginning with September of our year on the farm, 
fill out the receipts and expenditures of each month, esti- 
mating them as best you can from the probable accounts 
of the general farming operations upon this farm for 
an average year. 

What should be a fair net income from a forty-acre 
farm, providing the farmer does as much of the labor 
himself as he can? 



LESSON XXXVIII 

2. CROP RECORDS 

It is an important business matter for the farmer to 
keep, year by year, a record of the production of each 
field. This lesson should impress upon the pupils the 
importance of keeping such records neat and accurate. 
Use the form below, and require each pupil to keep a 
record of one of the fields at his own home. Neatly fill 
out the form in the agricultural note-book, and add the 
data from time to time as the field is farmed. 



Name 

Crop 

Kind of Soil 



P. O 

Previous Crop. 
No. of Acres . . 



Date of plowing. . 
Depth of plowing. 
Cost of plowing. . . 



Preparation of the Soil 

I Date of cultivation . . . . 

Implement used 

1 Cost of prep, seed bed. 



CEOP EECOEDS 123 



Seeding and Cultivation 



Date of seeding. . 
Amount of seed. 

Cost of seed 

Fertilizer used . . 



Cost of fertilizer.... 
Dates of cultivation. 
Implements used . . . 
Cost of cultivation . . 



Date of harvest 

Cost of harvest 

Total cost of the crop. 

Insect injury 

Fungous injury 



Quality of the harvest. 

Yield, grain 

Yield, fodder 

Yield per acre 

Net profit per acre.... 



Note : In connection with this lesson it would be a 
valuable supplementary exercise to establish a school 
bank. The pupils of the school should elect a president, 
board of directors, cashier, and clerk. The teacher 
should provide a suitable receptacle for money deposits 
and the proper bank books, checks, etc. Encourage the 
pupils to make deposits, keep bank books, and draw out 
money only with properly signed checks. Our boys and 
girls should become familiar with these simple business 
proceedings. 

LESSON XXXIX 

3. EECORD OF A GOOD CEOP ROTATION 

Compare the data given in the ten-acre rotation below, 
with prices and conditions in your home vicinity. The 
figures below are the actual record of an Illinois field 
under standard conditions of cultivation : 

A Good Typical Ledger Ruling 

1. Clover sown in wheat in March — 

Number of bushels 1 

Cost of seed $6.50 

Cost of labor $1.25 

2. Wheat cut in July. Threshed and maiketed — 

Yield, bushels 200 

Value of yield $160.00 

Total cost of labor $17.50 



124 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

3. Pasture in clover in the Fall — 

Number of head 5 

Number of months 2 

Income from pasture $12.00 

4 Clover hay harvested next June — 

Number of tons 12 

Price per ton $5.00 

Cost of labor $12.00 

5. Clover seed crop in the Fall. Husked and marlieted — 

Number bushels yield 15 

Value of yield $90.00 

Cost of labor $20.00 

6. Plow for corn the folloyifing Spring, and plant — 

Cost of labor $10.00 

Cost of seed C 1 y2 bushels) $1.00 

Four cultivations — cost of labor for cultivation $7.50 

7. Seeding wheat in the corn in September — 

Cost seed 1 1 % bushels per acrei $12.00 

Cost of labor $4.00 

8. Corn harvest in the Fall — 

Number of bushels 500 

Value of the vield $200.50 

Cost of labor $15.00 

Calculate the total cost and receipts of this rotation, 
and the net gain on one acre for one year. 

The last census shows that the average annual crop 
per acre in this country is valued at $11. How does 
this annual crop compare with the average? 

What does the farm upon which you live yield per 
acre? 

What crops yield the highest net returns per acre in 
your locality? 

Problems 
1. A farmer's boy hires out to a neighbor for five 
months at $22 per month. He begins work April 1, 
with $7.35 cash on hand. He receives his pay at the 
end of every month. April 2, he pays $2.75 for shoes. 
April 20, 25c for a straw hat. May 3, he spends $1.25 
for a coat. May 31, he buys a colt for $42. July 1, 



CROP RECORDS 125 

he pays $14.75 for more clothing. July 4, he spends 
$2.35. July 20, he sells his colt for $55. August 15, he 
pays $6.50 for a watch, and, during the summer he 
spends $4.85 for sundry small articles. 

Write out his account and determine how much cash 
he has on hand when his time is out. 

2. Two boys rent for $4 a half acre of land on which 
to plant onions. They allow themselves 75c each per day 
for their time. It costs them $2 to get this piece of land 
fertilized and plowed. They each spend ten days' time 
planting and cultivating their onions, and four days 
more each when harvesting time comes. They sell $14.30 
worth of green onions, and harvest 142 bushels more. 
For 100 bushels they get 75c per bushel, and 60c per 
bushel for the remainder. 

Write out their onion account, and find their profit. 

3. A farmer runs an account with George White, a 
merchant. July 7, he buys a pair of shoes for $2.40 and 
has them charged on account. July 20, he takes in 
twelve dozen of eggs at 11 cents per dozen and gets 50c 
worth of sugar. August 3, he takes in twelve pounds 
of butter at 20 cents per pound and gets nine yards of 
calico at 6 cents per yard, one pound of tea at 50 cents, 
four pounds of coffee at 18 cents per pound, and a bar- 
rel of salt at $1.25. August 14, he gets a pail of fish at 
75 cents and 100 pounds of sugar at 5i/2 cents per 
pound, and pays $2 in cash. How does his account stand 
on August 151 

Write out this account with Geo. White. 



126 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

LESSON XL 



4. COMPARISON OF AGRICULTURE PRODUCTS 

Take the data from the Year-book of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture for 1905, and fill out the tabulation 
below : 





CORN 


WHEAT 


OATS 


HAY 


STATES [Acres |Value |Acres |Value |Acres |Value |Acres |Value 







































Ohio 




































Illinois 




































Virginia 



















Georgia 




































Iowa 


















Kentucky 



















Maryland 



















Compare the products of your state with those of 
other states. 

Construct a similar table for the data on live stock. 

1. Horses : number and value. 

2. Mules : number and value. 

3. Milch cows : number and value. 

4. Sheep : number and value. 

5. Hogs: number and value. 

The Year-book may be secured free from the De- 
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, through 
your Congressman or Senator. 



ASSESSMENT FARM VALUES 



127 



LESSON XLI 
5. AN ASSESSMENT OF FARM VALUES 

(a) Make a list of the real and personal property- 
owned by your parents, with values such as could be 
received from sale. Use the form given below, and 
make a neat record of the assessment in the notebook: 
Assessment Record 



Name of Farm. 



PROPERTY 



I Number | Valuation 



3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 



Acres 01 land 

Buildings 

Horses 

Cattle 

Sheep 

Hogs 

Poultry 

Farm machinery 

Oats . . .• 

Wheat 

Corn 

Household furniture . . . . 

Hay 

Money in bank or notes. 



Total 

Rate of taxation 
Total tax 



(b) Use the above form and fill out the assessment 
record of our forty-acre farm as you think it should be 
equipped. 

LESSON XLII 

FARM MACHINERY 

The drudgery of farm life is gradually being reduced 
by the invention and improvement of farm tools and 
machines. Improvement in kitchen machinery comes 
slowest of all upon the farm, but with the progress of 
domestic science, we may look for much improvement 
in kitchen equipment. The following comparisons show 
the great development in farm implements. 



128 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

THE OLD WAY THE NEW WAY 

The hoe. The horse-drawn cultivator. 

The grass sickle. The horse mower and rake 

The grain cradle. The steam-drawn harvester 

The single plow. The steam gang plow. 

The corn knife. The corn reaper and husker. 

The "up and down churn " The "quick coming"' churn 

The open crock. The cream separator. 

Points in the care of farm machinery : 

1. The farmer must know how to manage his ma- 
chine. 

2. Farm machines must not be left in the field to 
rust and rot. 

3. As soon as any tool or machine has finished its 
work for the season it should be carefully cleaned, oiled 
and housed. 

4. Every machine, implement, and vehicle should 
be properly oiled. 

5. All needed repairs should be promptly made. 

6. "Such care, which is neither costly nor burden- 
some, will add many years to the life of a machine." 

Practical Exercises 

If the school is in a town, the teacher should go 
with the class to an implement store and observe the 
different farm machines, tools, and implements. 

Make a list of the different kinds of plows, harrows, 
reapers, planters, and grain separators that you 
know of. 

Each pupil should make a list of the different farm 
implements at his home, and the make of each im- 
plement. 

Note, — Some farm machine or implement, such as 
the plow, should be brought to school, to be taken apart 
and set up again by the pupils. 



OUTLOOK— WEST VIRGINIA TYPE STATE 139 

LESSON XLIII 

AGRICULTURAL OUTLOOK— WEST VIRGINIA AS A 
TYPE STATE 

Geographical and climatic conditions seem to indi- 
cate that there are three principal agricultural opera- 
tions which would pay the farmers of West Virginia to 
develop : 

1. Fruit-growing.— Many hillsides, poorly adapted 
to grain cultivation, would produce profitable orchards 
of apple, peach, cherry, and other smaller fruits. Some 
of the best fruit plantations of the United States are 
in West Virginia, and what has been done in one place 
can be done in many other parts of the state, for the 
conditions of successful fruit culture are similar. It 
would be better for the soil of many farms, and for 
the purses of many farmers were their hillsides planted 
to fruit trees, rather than to grain fields with weed- 
filled washouts. 

2. Dairying, grazing, and stock raising. — West Vir- 
ginia has ranked among the first states in the produc- 
tion of fine-wooled sheep, and there is no reason that 
this rank should not be maintained. The hills will 
produce the finest of blue grass, timothy, and clover, 
and there are many natural advantages which may be 
used in the winter protection of the flock. The in- 
creased demand for dairy products should encourage 
grazing and cattle raising. With the improvement of 
country roads, and the extension of the railroads and 
trolleys, the sale of milk, butter, and live stock will be 



130 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

greatly facilitated, and the dairy business become a 
profitable agricultural operation in the state. 

3. Truck g-ardening. — As the mines, and wells of 
oil and gas are developed throughout the state, more 
and more laborers leave the farm and become consum- 
ers of farm products rather than producers. In the 
many mining towns which have sprung up in all parts 
of West Virginia are thousands of laborers who do 
not even have a kitchen garden. The homes of these 
men must, be supplied with the vegetables and prod- 
ucts of the farm. If West Virginia farms and gar- 
dens do not furnish these, those of other states will. 
There are many fertile valleys and fields near these 
industrial centers that could produce far more than 
they now do, toward supplying the demand for food 
products. 

Practical Exercises 

Students of other states using this book should write 
similar paragraphs upon the agricultural outlook of 
their own state, using this lesson on West Virginia as a 
type. 



JANUARY 

On the farm. — There is little outdoor work to do on 
the farm this month. It is a good month in which to 
read and to plan for the coming year. These are the 
farmers' days of leisure when the demands of his call- 
ing are not so exacting as usual, when he and those 
of his household may enjoy the accumulated fruitage 
of the year. But the wise farmer will not waste his 
time even now. Live stock are to be fed and cared 
for, farm conveniences are to be planned, and systems 
of cropping worked out. In school the class in agri- 
culture may profitably study soils and fertilizers this 
month. 

LESSON XLIV 

COUNTRY LIFE CONVENIENCES 

Stay on the farm. — Why do the young people leave 
the farm in such great numbers to go to the city ? Per 
haps the boys and girls who read these pages could 
give a better answer than the statesmen and professors 
who are trying to answer this question. The usual an- 
swer given and the one most nearly correct, perhaps, 
is that young people leave the farm because they can- 
not make enough money there, and because the social 
life and home conveniences are not attractive. Al- 
though the country people do not receive for their prod- 

131 



132 LESSONS IN AGRICULTUEE 

ucts a just share of what the consumer pays, there are 
brighter days ahead, and with better legislation, closer 
organization, and more education for the farmer, the 
country boys and girls are going to have as good a 
chance to enjoy the best things of life as their city 
cousins have. 

Conveniences in the country. — Country life conven- 
iences are already coming, and from the kitchen to the 
church the work and life of the country is becoming 
more interesting and attractive. There is no reason 
why the country home can not have its hot and cold 
water supply with sanitary plumbing. It would cost 
no more than a good team of horses or an automobile. 
Progressive farmers are lighting their homes with elec- 
tricity or gasolene. They are equipping their kitchens 
as well as their barns and fields with conveniences to 
save labor. Into every community there has come the 
rural free mail delivery and the telepTione, and we can 
safely prophesy that the parcels post, the postal savings 
bank, the interurban car service, good public roads, con- 
solidated schools, and live country churches are soon 
to enrich and enlarge the life in the open country. 

Great forces for rural progress. — Many strong in- 
stitutions, and men of mind and money are devoting 
themselves to the interests of country life. State de- 
partments of education are providing supervisors of 
rural schools and encouraging the teaching of agricul- 
ture and domestic science in these schools. Agricultural 
colleges are sending extension schools, farmers' insti- 
tutes, and instruction trains into every corner of their 



COUNTEY LIFE CONVENIENCES 133 

states. The national grange is developing leaders among 
the men and women who live on the farms, and ex- 
tending its work of education and organization into 
every state in the union. The national department of 
agriculture is sending expert men and helpful litera- 
ture to every farm and rural institution, organizing and 
making more effective all the forces for rural progress. 
Practical Exercises 
Pupils may make special reports on the following 
topics as relating to the community in which they live: 

1. Modern conveniences on the farm. 

2. Community improvement clubs. 

3. Consolidation of rural schools. 

4. Rural mail delivery. 

5. Postal savings banks. 

6. Parcels post. 

7. Rural telephones. 

8 Interurban car lines. 

9 Automobiles. 

LESSON XLV 

THE FARMERS' READING 

The farmers' library. — The progressive farmer of 
to-day finds time to read, and his library is supplied 
not only with good books and periodicals of general 
literature, but with the latest books, bulletins, and farm 
papers as well. Men in all other vocations find both 
profit and pleasure in keeping up with the times by 
attending meetings, and reading the literature of their 



134 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

profession. This could not be said of the farmer until 
very recently. 

Who are writing farm books? — The writers of the 
best modern books and periodicals of agriculture are 
men who not only have the theoretical knowledge of 
their subjects, but the practical experience; and they 
have thus gained the confidence of the farmers, because 
they are in the field, wearing overalls with them. The 
progressive farmer no longer speaks lightly of "book 
farming," for he knows that good farmers have written, 
as well as wrought, successfully in agriculture. 

Farm papers. — There are many good farm papers, 
and every progressive farmer is a subscriber to one 
or more periodicals relating to the work in which he is 
interested. He reads and experiments and thus finds 
greater interest and profit in his work. 

Farm books. — The follov/ing vocational books should 
should be in every farmer's library: 

Chapters in Rural Progress, Butterfield. 

The State and the Farmer, Bailey. 

The Education of the Farmer, Bailey. 

The Country Home, Powell. 

Practical Farming, McClennan. 

Encyclopedia of Agriculture, Bailey. 

Checking the Waste, Gregory. 

The Country Life Movement, Bailey. 

The Country Church and the Rural Life Problem, 
Bailey. 

The Rural Life Problem of the United States, Plun- 
kett. 



SOIL 135 

Most of the above are supplied by the Orange Judd 
and Macmillan companies, New York City. 

Practical Exercises 

1. Pupils should bring copies of farm papers from 
their homes and start a reading table in the school. 

2. Send for copies of farm papers for the reading 
table. 

3. Each pupil .should report some interesting article 
he has read in a farm paper. 

4. Write to the Coljege of Agriculture for reading 
circle books, and try to organize a reading circle among 
the farmers of the community. 

LESSON XLVI 
SOIL 

During some mild day this month, let us go to vari- 
ous places on our farm, gather samples of soil, and 
make a more careful study of them in our farm labora- 
tory. 

Since the soil is the place where all our plants must 
grow, and since our animals must be fed from the 
plants we raise, our soil is the real foundation of our 
farm. 

How soils are formed. — Geologists tell us that at 
one time a great rock mass formed the surface of the 
earth. Earthquakes probably made great breaks in 
this rock mass, then by the decay of the rocks, the 
grinding of the water and ice, and the depositing of 
sediment, soil was formed. Water has been continually 



136 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



dissolving away and depositing particles of the rocks 
to form soil. Frosts, winds, rains, running streams, 
plant roots, burrowing animals, and other forces of 
nature are constantly changing the rocks to soil. 

Kinds of soil. — Since all soils come from rocks, the 
kind of soil must therefore depend on the kind of rock 
from which it was made. Sandy soil must come from 




Fig. 42- — Drawing, showing how 
rod? gradually breaks up and de- 
cays from the top downward. 



Fig. 42a- — Drawing, showing gla- 
cial cirift deposited on top of the 
solid rocis. 



sandstone, lime soil from limestone, clay soil from clay 
stones, etc. 

Humus. — Ilumus is the decaying and partly decayed 
plant and animal life in the soil. It is usually dark 
colored. Humus greatly improves the soil for plants, 
because in its. decay acids are set free which help dis- 
solve plant food in the soil, and because it improves 
the quality of the soil, making clay less and sand more 
compact, thus increasing the water-holding capacity 
for plants. The loss of humus makes hillside land wash 
badly, and unless the farmer is careful, his sloping fields 
are soon "worn out." All weeds, stubble, clovers, etc., 



SOIL 



13^ 



should be plowed under to form humus, and thus keep 
the soil in good condition. 

Clay soil. — Most soils contain both sand and clay, 
and the class to which a soil belongs is determined by 
the relative amounts 
of these of which it 
is composed. A clay 
soil is composed of 
very fine particles, 
which, when dry, 
seem to contain no 
grit or sand. Clay 
soils retain water a 
long time, and be- 
come very hard in 
drying. 

Sandy soil. — Sand 
varies greatly in fine- 
ness. Sand particles 
are very hard, and 
have sharp edges, 
giving a gritty feel- 
ing in handling. Wa- 
ter passes through 
sand very freely. 
Sandy soils are 

quickly warmed by the sun in the spring 
badly and are not durable under tillage 




Courtesy of D. W. Working 
Fig. 43. The Weatheiung of Rock 
Under the influence of the weather 
— heating and cooling, wetting and dry- 
ing — tlie solid rock is then broken into 
fragments. 



They wash 
Both sand 

and clay may contain organic matter; that is, decaying 

plant or animal life. 



138 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 

Loam. — Loam is a mixture of sand, clay and humus 
in such proportions as to be easily tilled, and suitable 
for most crops. Good soil must also have a constant 
supply of moisture and air. Loam is neither too coarse 
nor too fine to allow the best supply of air and moisture 
in the soil. 

Practical Exercises 

(Use notebooks and record results and observations) 

1. Comparison of Soils 

With samples of clay, sand, and humus loams, spread 

on sheets of paper before each pupil, let the student fill 

out the following table : 



Soils. Color. Size of particles. Weight. Feeling. 



Clay Loam . . . . 
Sand Loam. . , 
Humus Loam. 



The use of a hand lens will help in this study. 

2. Composition of Soil 
Carefully weigh a small handful of rich black soil. 
Then dry it thoroughly, being careful not to burn it, 
and weigh again. The difference is the weight of the 
water content of the soil. What per cent of this soil 
was water? Now place the dry soil in a dish or iron 
pan and burn it. Cool, weigh again, and examine care- 
fully. The loss is the weight of the humus or organic 
matter. What per cent of this soil is organic mat- 
ter? Do you believe that you could burn all of the 
soil? The portion remaining is the mineral matter. 
What per cent is mineral matter? We shall learn what 



SOIL 



139 



this mineral matter consists of. Record the result of 
this exercise and write answers to all the questions. 
S. Water-holding Capacity of Soils 
Fill three small earthen flower pots with finely pul- 
verized soils, one with clay, one with sand, and one 
with humus loam. Weigh these, and if possible make 
them weigh the same. Then slowly pour water into 
each pot until the soils are saturated and the water 




Pig. 44. Apparatus to Test the Capacity of Soils to Take in 

Rainfall 

begins to run out from the hole at the bottom of the 
pot. Weigh the pots of wet soil, and determine which 
is holding the most water. Which soil took in water 
most rapidly? Which most slowly? Which of the 
soils could absorb the heaviest shower? Which soil 
continues to drip longest? Which drains most readily? 



140 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



Does this experiment have any bearing on farm 
practice? What? 

4. Capillarity of Soils 
Fill three soil tubes respectively with fine dry sand, 
clay, and loam. The soil is held in the tubes by a cloth 
tied over one end of each of the tubes. Set the tubes 
in a rack as shown in the figure, so that the cloth ends 
reach down into the tumblers, filled to equal heights 




Fig. 45. Diagram Showing Action of Watek in Soil 

with water. Observe the rise of water in the different 
soils. Note how high it rises in each tube, and the 
time it takes. In which soil does the water rise most 
rapidly? In which to the greatest height? Which 
soil draws up the greatest amount of water? This 
power of soils to draw water up from below is called 
capillarity, and the water is called capillary water. 
Because of this capillarity, plants are able to get mois- 
ture from the sub-soil in times of drought. How may 



SOIL 141 

the farmer increase the amount of humus in his soil, 
and thus the drawing and holding capacity for water be 
increased ? 

5. Soil Mulch 

Fill two tin pans or cans with the same kind and 
amount of soil, and thoroughly saturate each pan of 
soil with water. Then cover the wet soil of one pan 
with an inch or more of dry earth, finely pulverized, 
and leave the other pan unmulched. See that both 
pans of soil now weigh the same, by transferring soil 
from one to the other as necessary. Set the pans aside 
for twenty-four hours, then weigh again. Weigh the 
pans every twenty-four hours for several days, and 
record the comparative weights of the two pans of soils. 
The dust mulch prevents evaporation, and enables the 
soil to retain its moisture. Wliat bearing does this ex- 
periment have upon any farm operations? 

6. Field Observations 
Take a walk to a suitable field near the schoolhouse. 
Take pencil and notebook and answer the following 
questions : 

1. How does the weathered surface of rocks compare 
with the freshly broken surface ? 

2. Are the boulders and pebbles you find of the 
same material as the rock ledges to be found in the 
neighborhood ? 

3. How do the pebbles in the bed of a stream com- 
pare with those back from the stream, in size and shape ? 
Explain the difference. 

4. Find some rich soil and dig a hole about 18x12 



142 



LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 



inches, and about 2 feet deep. Describe the difference 
between the soil and sub-soil. Repeat this experiment 
by digging the hole on a steep slope. Account for 
the difference between the soil of the two places. Which 
do you think will grow the better crop ? How deep -is 
the soil in both places? 

5. Name the places at which you see soil forming, 
and explain agency in each case. 

7. Soils on the Home Farms 

Each student in the class should bring samples of 
soil from the home farm. Place the samples in sepa- 
rate vessels on a table where all can observe them, and 
fill out the following outline : 




Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 
Bureau of Soils 

Circular No. 4.— Soils of Salt Lake Valley, Utah. 

Circular No. 8. — Eeclamation of Salt Marsh Lands. 

Circular No. 13.— The Work of the Bureau of Soils. 

Table showing fertilizing substances in average soils: 

Pounds per Ton. 
Soil. • Nitrogen. Phos. Acid. Potash 

Loam 7 lbs. 3 lbs. 8 lbs. 

Clay 3 lbs. 3 lbs. 15 lbs. 

Sand 1 lb. 2 lbs. 5 lbs. 

(Adapted from Stockbridge.) 

Problems 
1\ Suppose soil is cultivated to the depth of 4 inches. 
How many cubic feet of cultivated soil per square foot 
of area ? Per square yard ? Per square rod ? Per acre ? 



SOIL 143 

2. If a cubic foot of soil weighs 75 pounds, how 
many pounds of cultivated soil per square yard? Per 
square rod ? Per acre ? 

3. Find the number of pounds of nitrogen, potash 
and phosphoric acid in the cultivated soil per acre for 
each of the four kinds of soil. 

4. If the soil is cultivated to the depth of eight 
inches, how many pounds of each of the three fer- 
tilizing substances per acre in each of the soils given in 
the table ? 

5. How many pounds of nitrogen, potash and phos- 
phoric acid are used, annually, per acre, by a crop of 
20 bu. of wheat? In how many years will one-half of 
the nitrogen in clay be used up by this crop feeding to 
the depth of eight inches? 

6. How will this affect future crops? 

7. Work the same problem for other soils. 

8. Use a 50 bu. corn crop per acre and work prob- 
lem 7. Also a 60 bu. oat crop. A 120 bu. potato crop. 

LESSON XLVII 

PLANT FOODS 

While we are waiting for spring to come, when we 
shall be almost too busy on our farm to read, we shall 
continue our studies of soils and plant foods. 

Elements of the earth. — Chemists have found that 
all the substances of the world can be separated into 
about eighty different things. These are called elements. 
Iron, gold, silver, tin, carbon, sulphur, etc., are elements. 



144 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

No one has been able to separate them into different 
things. Gold cannot be separated into anything but 
gold. For centuries men tried to make gold out of other 
things, but they failed. Water is not an element; it is 
a compound. A chemist can separate it into two gases, 
hydrogen and oxygen. 

Elements and compounds. — All living things are 
made up of different compounds of elements. The 
starch of corn is a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen. Only a few of the eighty elements are neces- 
sary for the growth of plants and animals. The follow- 
ing elements are commonly found in plants, and the first 
ten are absolutely necessary for good plant growth: 
oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, iron, potassium, 
phosphorus, calcium, sulphur, magnesium, sodium, chlo- 
rine, and silicon. Oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen are 
invisible gases, so we do not see them. Gold and sul- 
phur occur as free elements. Calcium is not ordinarily 
seen, but ordinary quicklime is either calcium or mag- 
nesium combined with oxygen. Silicon and oxygen 
combined make up the large part of sand. Salt is a 
compound of sodium and chlorine. A green plant is 
mostly water. Of the other substances, carbon makes 
up nearly one-half; nitrogen comes next; and there are 
smaller amounts of other elements. 

Essential elements for plants. — No plant can grow 
unless supplied with the first ten elements mentioned 
above. The soil furnishes iron, sulphur, magnesium, 
sodium, chlorine, and silicon ; a farmer does not need 
to give special attention to these. The carbon dioxide 



PLANT FOODS 145 

gas of the air furnishes carbon; water furnishes hydro- 
gen and oxygen; and the remaining elements, nitrogen, 
potassium, phosphorus, and calcium, are often insuffi- 
cient in the soil, and must be supplied if a good crop is 
to grow. So these, particularly the first three, are the 
elements that the farmers buy in their fertilizers. 

Soil elements. — The following table shows the com- 
position of a typical soil, containing 100 pounds of mat- 
ter. It will be noted that all these elements and com- 
pounds enter into the plant as food : 

Water . 12.67 lbs. 

Carbon 

Silica 71.55 

Aluminum 6.94 

Iron 5.17 

Magnesium 1.08 

Soda 43 

Sulphuric acid 04 

85.21 lbs. 

Nitrogen 12 

Phosphoric acid 43 

Potash 35 

Lime 1.22 

2.12 lbs. 

The first and second groups given above are more 
or less constant in the soil and in sufficient quantities 
that the farmer need not concern himself about supply- 
ing them. The third group, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, 
potash and lime, although constituting so small a por- 
tion of the soil, must be held up to a good standard 
amount and proportion or the plant cannot grow. These 
elements are often used up in the soil and must be ar- 
tificially supplied by fertilizers of various kinds. 

Elements in a wheat plant. — The following table 
shows the composition of 100 pounds of wheat plants : 



146 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

Carbon 47.69 

Water 45.86 

Sodium 09 

Magnesium 20 

Sulphuric acid 31 

Iron 04 

Chlorine 06 

Silica 2.75 

Nitrogen 1.60 

Phosphoric acid 45 

Potash 66 

Lime 29 



93.55 lbs. 



3.45 lbs. 



3.00 lbs. 



This table is interesting in that it shows that so 
small a per cent of the composition of the plant is made 
up of the nitrogen, phosphorus, potash and lime — the 
elements that exist in so small a proportion in the soil ; 
yet it is this small proportion of these elements with 
which the farmer must concern himself in intelligent 
practice. 

Plant starvation. — Now, if these foods are not found 
in sufficient quantity in the soil, the plant grows slowly 
and finally dies. Again, the soil may contain plenty of 
plant food, but it may not be in a form readily soluble 
by the water, and the plant suffers from a lack of food, 
just as one may starve within ten feet of plenty of food 
that is securely locked up so that he can not get at it. 
One problem which the farmer is called upon to solve 
is, how to make the plant food in the soil of his farm 
more easily soluble. 

Soil exhaustion. — From what we have learned it is 
clear that, if the farmer raises grain on his farm to sell, 
and never returns manure to the soil, he will rob it of 



PLANT FOODS 147 

its plant food, and it will soon begin to show evidence 
of being "worn out." Plant foods are being continually 
used up by the growing plants, and removed with them, 
and none are returned to take their place. The heavier 
the crop the greater will be the loss. Tobacco and root 
crops, being so much heavier, exhaust the soil faster 
than small grains. 

But worn-out soil does not mean soil in which all 
the different kinds of plant foods are used up. In 
fact, soil usually contains all plant foods in inexhaust- 
ible quantities with but three exceptions, namely: pot- 
ash, phosphoric acid and the nitrogen found in am- 
monia. To restore the fertility of the soil means only 
to restore these three substances. 

Practical Exercises 

1. Collection of Plant Foods 

Place specimens of the following plant foods in small 
bottles and label properly: Lime, muriate or sulphate 
of potash, phosphoric acid, nitrate of soda, iron-rust, 
magnesia, sulphur, and pure sand. 

2. Experime7it with Plant Food Tablets 

A plant food tablet has been prepared which contains 
the food essential to plant growth. Each tablet is com- 
posed of the following ingredients: 

Common salt (sodium chloride), 2^^ grains. 

Plaster of Paris (calcium sulphate), 2i/^ grains. 

Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate), 21/2 grains. 

Phosphate of lime (calcium phosphate), 2l^ grains. 

Salt-petre (postassium nitrate), 5 grains. 

Compounds of iron and chlorine (ferric chloride), 
1-10 grain. 



148 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

To demonstrate the effect of plant foods as prepared 
in these tablets, fill two cans or flower pots with per- 
fectly clean sand which has been heated to the boiling 
point of water. Plant six grains of wheat and three 
grains of corn in each pot. Keep one pot of sand moist 
with rain water. Keep the other in the same condition 
as to moisture, to which has been added plant food to 
the proportion of two tablets to each pint of water. 

At first there will be no difference perhaps in the 
growth of the plants, but in two or three weeks, when 
the food stored up in the grain is exhausted, the dif- 
ference in vigor and growth is clearly evident. Such 
substances as those contained in these tablets, when ap- 
plied to the soil, are known as fertilizers. 

Table showing proportions of fertilizing substances in farm 
crops: 

Ounces per Bushel. 

Crop. Nitrogen. Phos. Acid. Potash. 

Wheat 20 oz. 8 oz. o oz. 

Rje 17 oz. 9 oz. 5 oz. 

Corn, shelled 14 oz. 5 oz. 3 oz. 

Barley 12 oz. 6 oz. 4 oz. 

Buckwheat 12 oz. 4 oz. 2 oz. 

Oats 10 oz. 3 oz. 2 oz. 

Potatoes 3 oz. 1 oz. 4 oz. 

Root crops, average 3 oz. 1 oz. 2 oz. 

Cotton seed 13.8 oz. 5.8 oz. 5.4 oz. 

Ounces per 100 lbs. 

Cotton lint 3.8 oz. 1.6 oz. 8 oz. 

Pounds per Ton. 

Crop. Nitrogen. Phos. Acid. Potash. 

Timothy or red top hay. . 20 lbs. 9 lbs. 30 lbs. 

Clover hay 40 lbs. 10 lbs. 40 lbs. 

Tobacco (leaves) 60 lbs. 13 lbs. 80 lbs. 

Straw (average) 10 lbs. 4 lbs. 20 lbs. 

Sugar beets 3 lbs. 1-5 lb. 4 lbs. 

Cow-pea hay 47.2 lbs. 10.4 lbs. 29.4 lbs. 

Soy Bean hay 46.4 lbs. 13.4 lbs. 21.6 lbs. 



PLANT FOODS 149 

Problems 

1. How many pounds of each of the three impor- 
tant fertilizers in a crop of wheat that yields 20 bu. 
per acre ? 25 bu. per acre ? 

2. A corn crop of 50 bu. per acre ? 60 bu. 1 75 bu. ? 

3. An oat crop of 40 bu. per acre ? 50 bu. f 60 bu. ? 

4. A barley crop of 40 bu. ? 45 bu. ? 50 bu. ? 

5. A potato crop of 110 bu. per acre? 120 bu. ? 
150 bu.? 

6. A clover hay crop of 3i/^ tons per acre? 4 tons? 
5 tons? 

7. A meadow hay crop of 2 tons per acre? 2i/2 
tons ? 3 tons ? 

8. A tobacco crop of 1,500 lbs. per acre? 1,800 
lbs.? 

9. Compare the results and notice which crop is 
hardest on the soil. 

10. Pupils should furnish data for similar prob- 
lems. Tell how many acres of corn, wheat, hay, etc., 
were raised on the farm at home, the number of bush- 
els or tons per acre, and find the amount of the three 
essential fertilizers taken off with the crop. 

LESSON XLVIII 
FERTILIZERS 

During this month we shall begin the work of fertiliz- 
ing on our farm. We shall mix the commercial fer- 
tilizers in our farm laboratory. Barnyard manures and 
other fertilizers must be spread upon the orchards, 



150 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



pastures, fields and gardens, as we shall learn in this 
lesson. 

Important elements of the soil. — As was suggested 
in the last lesson, the three elements likely to be lack- 
ing in our soils are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash. 
The fertilizers we use must, therefore, contain these 
essential elements. The crop will usually tell the farmer 
by its appearance the kind of food it most needs. Good, 




Fig. 46. Waste of Manure 

fertile, well-drained soil, properly cultivated, usually 
produces healthy, dark green plants with strong, good- 
sized stalks, and numerous, well-filled seeds. 

Nitrogen. — The growth of the stalks and foliage of 
the plant is largely due to the nitrogen, providing the 
heat, light, air, and moisture conditions are favorable. 
If the plant has a yellow, sickly appearance, and under 
cultivation refuses to grow, it is likely starving for 
want of nitrogen. The best fertilizer, and the one nearly 
always giving best results, is barnyard manure. It has 
right amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, 
in forms readily available to the plant. Especially 



FERTILIZEES 151 

will barnyard manure improve yellow and sickly plants. 
Besides acting as a fertilizer, barnyard manure improves 
the texture of the soil, increases its water-holding ca- 
pacity, and its decay sets free humic acids which ren- 
der mineral foods of the soil more available. 

Clovers, cow-peas, and other like legumes, also serve 
as fertilizers, because they have the power of using the 
nitrogen of the air in a way that will be explained in a 
later lesson. These plants store up the nitrogen that 
they take from the air, and if they are plowed under 
when mature, they add this nitrogen to the soil, as well 
as large quantities of humus, which in decaying lib- 
erates other mineral foods already in the soil. 

The principal commercial nitrogen fertilizers are cot- 
tonseed meal, nitrate of soda, dried blood and tankage, 
and refuse from slaughterhouses. Nitrate of soda is 
the best and quickest acting of all these fertilizers. It 
dissolves quickly when applied to the soil, and is at 
once available as food for the plants. High grade 
nitrate of soda contains 15% nitrogen. Two hundred 
pounds per acre is a heavy application. 

Phosphoric acid. — Phosphoric acid is the one com- 
pound in our soils soonest likely to be wanting, and the 
one which in the future it will be most difficult to pro- 
vide. Undeveloped and shrunken seeds usually indicate 
shortage of phosphoric acid in the soil. Barnyard ma- 
nure contains a good percentage of phosphoric acid. 
Ground bones and phosphate rocks are the commercial 
sources of this fertilizer. There are great deposits of 
phosphate rock in Tennessee and the Carolinas, and it 



152 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

is being rapidly rained away, large quantities being 
taken to European countries. In the manufacture of 
high grade phosphates, the rock is ground fine and is 
then treated with sulphuric acid, which makes it soluble, 
and thus available as a plant food. High grade phos- 
phates contain 15% acid phosphate. Two hundred 
pounds per acre is an average application. 

Potash. — Potash is especially essential in the pro- 
duction of fruits, potatoes, and root crops. Other con- 
ditions being favorable, undersized, shriveled, and im- 
perfect fruits are due to a lack of potash. Here again 
barnyard manure will supply a good percentage of the 
element needed. Wood ashes are also valuable as a 
source of potash. The principal commercial potash fer- 
tilizers are muriate of potash and sulphate of potash. 
They contain about 50% of available potash, and are 
seldom applied in excess of one hundred pounds per 
acre. 

Lime. — Lime is not a fertilizer in the same sense as 
those discussed above, but it is used in connection with 
fertilizers because of its chemical effect upon the soil. 
Lime sweetens the soil, breaks up combinations so that 
plant food is set free for the use of the plants, and im- 
proves the physical condition of both clay and sand 
soils. 

The subject of fertilizers is a large and important one 
to the farmer. It requires much thought and careful 
study, and each farmer must work out his own farm 
needs. 



FERTILIZERS 



153 



Practical Exercises 

1. Expcrimcnial Tests iviih Fertilizers 
Fill ten five-inch earthen flower pots with clean sand, 
and add fertilizers to the different pots as follows : 

1. Nothing. 

2. Nitrate of soda (one-half teaspoonful), 

3. Acid phosphate (one teaspoonful). 




4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 



Fig. 47. Liming the Soil 



Muriate of potash (one-fourth teaspoonful). 
Nitrate of soda and acid phosphate. 
Nitrate of soda and muriate of potash. 
Acid phosphate and muriate of potash. 

8. Nitrate of soda, acid phosphate, and muriate of 
potash. 

9. Same as No. 8, but double the amount of each. 

10. Stable manure. 



154 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 

Mix the fertilizers into the soil; then plant about 
a dozen grains of wheat in each pot. Label each pot 
Avith the names of the fertilizers used. Place the pots 
in a window or light place, and keep the soil moist 
ened. When the wheat seedlings come up, thin out 
to the same number in each pot. Note the difference 
in the color of the leaves in each pot. Which fertil- 
izers give the greatest increase in growth? 

Make a complete record of this experiment in the 
note-book. 

2. Effects of Lime on Soils 

To see the effect of lime on clay soil, make two clay 
balls, one with water, and the other with lime water, and 
set aside to dry. In a few days examine and see which 
is more mellow. 

Repeat the experiment with water and humus-water 
and note the result. 

Is lime used on soils in your neighborhood? 

Fertilizers 

Showing average amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and 
potash in fertilizers: 

Pounds per Ton, 
Substance. Nitrogen. Phos. Acid. Potash. 

Clover hay 40 lbs. 10 lbs. 40 lbs. 

Straw 10 lbs. 4 lbs. 20 lbs. 

Barnyard manure 10 lbs. 6 lbs. 9 lbs. 

Wood ashes 60 lbs. 160 lbs. 

Burned bones 500 lbs. 

Ground bones 400 lbs. 

Problems 
1. Suppose a load of barnyard manure weighs a 
ton. How many pornds of nitrogen in it? Of phos- 
phoric acid? Of potash? 



FEKTILIZEES I55 

2. How much of each of the above in 15 loads? 20 
loads? 50 loads? 

3. How many loads of manure were hauled onto 
your land last year? How much of each fertilizing 
substance was supplied? 

4. If you put 15 loads on an acre, how much of 
each fertilizing substance per acre ? 

5. Suppose you harvested 50 bu. of corn per acre. 
How much of each fertilizing substance did you take 
off with the crop ? 

6. Was your soil richer or poorer after the corn 
was harvested? Did you take off more than you put 
on ? How much of each kind ! 

7. How much of each of these fertilizing substances 
is taken off with a 25 bu. crop per acre of wheat ? A 40 
bu. crop of barley ? 

8. How many loads of manure per acre are necessary 
to restore the fertility lost when a 25 bu. per acre wheat 
crop is harvested? 

9. If $5 per acre spent in fertilizer increases the 
yield of potatoes 50 bu. net. Find the gain per acre by 
fertilizing. 

10. A farmer who uses fertilizer costing .$6 an acre 
grows 560 lbs. of cotton per acre; one who uses no 
fertilizer grows 350 lbs. per acre. At the present mar- 
ket price of cotton which plan is the more profitable? 
How much is gained on 80 acres? 

11. The usual prices of the common fertilizers is as 
follows : 

Nitrate of soda, $57.00 per ton. 



156 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

Acid phosphate, $12.50 per ton. 

Muriate of potash, $42.00 per ton. 

How much would a pound of each cost? 

"When a farmer speaks of a fertilizer as being 2:8:10, 
he means that it contains 2% nitrogen, 8% phosphoric 
acid, and 10% potash. 

How would 2000 pounds of fertilizer of this type be 
made up? 

Note. Assume in the above problem that nitrate of 
soda contains 15% nitrogen, the acid phosphate 14% 
phosphorus, and the muriate of potash 50% potash, de- 
termine how much of these commercial fertilizers would 
be required to furnish the essential amount of pure 
elements. 

12. At the College of Agriculture, Cornell Univer- 
sity, two tons of manure that had been weighed and 
analyzed were left exposed from April 25 to September 
22, with the following results : 

April 25. Sept. 22. 

Total weight 4,000 lbs. 1,730 lbs. 

Nitrogen 19.6 lbs. 7.72 lbs. 

Phosphoric aoid 14.8 lbs. 7.79 lbs. 

Potash 36. lbs. 8.65 lbs. 

What was the value of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, 
and potash in this manure on April 25, and on Sep- 
tember 22? (Use the values given above). How much 
was lost ? 

There are two ways to prevent such losses — the ma- 
nure may be hauled and spread on the land every 
few days, or it may be kept in covered sheds. 

13. A good fertilizer for timothy hay has been found 
to be one containing 200 pounds of nitrate of soda, 100 



FEETILIZEES 157 

pounds of acid phosphate, and 50 pounds of muriate of 
potash, per acre. 

How much would this cost per acre? 

What percentage of each would this fertilizer con- 
tain? 

About how much hay at the price in your neighbor- 
hood would be worth this much ? 



FEBRUARY 

On the farm. — During this month we shall have a 
variety of interests and plenty of work to engage our 
attention on the farm. There are fences to repair and 
build, hotbeds to prepare, tile ditches to dig, spring 
orders to make, and live stock to feed and care for. No 
one great work is to claim our time, but many different 
plans and preparations are to be made. 

LESSON XLIX 

DRAINAGE 

Plan for draining our forty acres. — A period of open 
weather has come, the ground has thawed out, and we 
have seen that fields numbers 1 and 2 of our farm need 
drainage. If the ground is dry enough to work in, we 
shall run two ditches, each forty rods long, across the 
centers of fields numbers 1 and 2, and connect each with 
Spring Hollow. We shall use five-inch tiles, twelve 
inches long, and they will cost us 5c each. We should 
have a bookkeeping account of our year on the farm, 
and record the expense of our tile drainage. 

Values of drainage. — Removes the excess of surface 
water. Plants cannot grow without air, and much water 
in the soil keeps out the air. The level of the under- 
ground water must be below the depth to which the roots 

158 



DRAINAGE 159 

of the crops ordinarily penetrate the soil. Good tile 
drainage lowers this water level. Stiff clay soils both 
on low, flat land and upon hillsides often hold an ex- 
cess of surface water, and need drainage. 

Aerates the soil. As was stated above, plants require 
air at the roots as well as about their foliage. The 
presence of air in the soil promotes the action of bac- 
teria, the germs that aid in breaking up the humus, as 
was shown in a previous lesson, and in the fixation of 
nitrogen in legumes. Air circulating through the tiles 
tends to draw the air through the soil from the surface 
above and thus to aerate the whole root-feeding area 
of the plants. 

Warms and sweetens the soil. In wet soils so much 
heat is used in evaporating the water that these soils 
never become warm. Often such soils are sour, and 
cannot become sweet until the water is drained off and 
the heat and air let in. Well drained land warms up 
earlier in the spring, facilitating earlier planting, thus 
extending the growing season of the crop. 

Conserves moisture. We were told a moment ago 
that drainage removes the excess of moisture, and ii 
may seem a contradiction to state that drainage con- 
serves the moisture, but this fact can be shown. Soils 
that are aerated and tilled, as good drainage permits, 
are more porous and are in better condition physically 
both to receive and hold the rainfall and to promote 
capillarity from the table water below. 

Methods of drainage. — The tile system of drainage is 
better than the open ditch, though more expensive. The 



IGO 



LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 



tiles should be placed about three feet below the sur- 
face, so that the water level in the ground will be low- 
ered to this point, and that the ground may be cultivated 
without interfering with the tiles. The size of the tile 
and the distance apart of the mains and branches will 




Fig. 48. Laying Tile 



depend upon the slope of the land and the nature of 
the soil. 

Farmers' Bulletins 

No. 40. — Farm Drainage. 

No. 187. — Drainage of Farm Lands. 

Table showing average cost of drainage tile in large quan- 
tities: 

3 in. tile cost about 3c each. 

4 in. tile cost about 4c each. 

5 in. tile cost about 5c each. 

6 in. tile cost about 6c each. 
All sizes are 12 inches in lensth. 



DRAINAGE 161 



Problems 



1. A farmer owns a plat of low ground 80 rods 
long and 50 rods wide ; how many acres in this plat ? 

2. A creek runs lengthwise through this land. The 
level of the water in the creek is 4 feet below the level 
of the land. Can it be drained ? 

3. Will the creek answer as a channel to carry off 
the water from the tiles? 

4. Suppose he puts the tiles crosswise of the field, 
4 rods apart, so that they open into the creek. How 
many rods of tiling will it take? How many feet? 
How many 4 in. tiles? 

5. What will be the cost of these tiles according to 
the above table? 

6. What will it cost to dig the ditches and lay the 
tiles at 20 cents per rod ? 

7. What will be the entire cost if 4 in. tiles are 
used ? 3 in. ? 6 in. ? 

8. What will be the cost per acre for each kind of 
tile ? 

9. Suppose open ditches costing twenty cents per 
rod will answer. How much more will the tile system 
cost than the open ditches? 

10. If the farmer is able to grow only 11/2 tons of 
marsh hay worth $4 per ton on this land before drain- 
ing and can grow 60 bu. of corn worth $0.35 per bu. 
after draining, what is the increase in the value of the 
crop due to drainage? 

11. In how many years will this increase alone pay 



162 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

for the open ditch? For the 4 in. tile system? For 
the 6 in. tile system? 

12. Suppose the open ditch costs 5 cents per rod 
annually for repairs. In how many years will the open 
ditch cost as much as the tile drain? 

13. If the above is a true example of the cost and 
value of drainage, does it pay ? 

14. What would it cost to dig an open ditch on 
each side of a slough 10 rods wide and 100 rods long 
at $0.25 per rod ? 

15. Is there a place on your farm that needs drain- 
ing? IMeasure it. Draw a plan for ditches and esti- 
mate the cost of both systems. 

16. Estimate the cost of the drainage suggested at 
the beginning of this lesson. 

LESSON L 

FENCES 

Good fences and thrift. — We shall have a few spare 
days this month, and it would be well to look to our 
fences. The construction and care of the farm fences 
are indications of thrift or shiftlessness of the farmer. 
If the fences about the yard, gardens, and fields are 
neatly kept, and the weeds and bushes are cut from 
the rows and corners, it is a sign that the farmer takes 
pride in his home and farm, and that he is successful 
in the details of his business. The scarcity of timber 
is necessitating the use of wire, hedges, and cement for 



FENCES 163 

fencing purposes. Wire fences, supported by the locust 
or catalpa posts, are perhaps the best fences to construct 
at the present time. 

The Ferguson fence. — When the fence rails get old 
and broken, farmers sometimes utilize them in building 
what is known as the Ferguson fence. In this arrange- 
ment posts are set in the ground and the fence rails are 
attached to the posts by means of fencing wire and 
staples. This is a very economical fence, not only from 
the standpoint of materials, but also on account of the 
saving of space in the fence row. 

Osage hedge fence. — Some years ago there was a 
great deal of enthusiasm over the Osage hedge fence, but 
the interest in these fences is waning now, in fact, many 
of the hedges are being pulled up and burned. The 
chief objection to the hedge is that the extensive network 
of roots saps the life and nourishment of the soil to such 
an extent that farm crops can not be grown within 
twenty or thirty feet of the fence. 

Since 1870 many states have passed stock laws re- 
quiring every man to fence in his own stock, instead of 
fencing out those of his neighbors. The result has been 
a great saving to farmers in every case. 

Practical Exercises 

1. Fences on Home Farms 

Make a list of all the different kinds of fences that 

you have on the home farm. Explain how they are 

made, tell how long they have been constructed, and in 

what condition they are at present. 



1G4 LESSONS IN AGETCULTUEE 

S. Excursion to Observe and Eepair Fences 

At the conclusion of this lesson, go to observe some 
fence near the school. Make note of the fence, tilling 
out the following table : 



Kind of Fence. Materials Used. State of Eepair. Attention Needed. 



If there are any fences needing repair about the school 
yard or in the neighborhood, it would be an excellent 
thing, as an application of this lesson, to repair them 
and to put them in as good condition as possible. 

3. Cement Fence-posts 

Since recent fence-post and walk construction have 
made use of the Portland cement about the farm, it 
would be valuable exercise to make a few cement posts 
or blocks at the school. The following formula is used : 

Cement 1 part. 

Sand 2 or 3 parts. 

Stone (from one to two inches diameter) 5 parts. 
Moisten and mix until the mortar slides easily and 
smoothly from the shovel. 



FENCES 1G5 



Problems 



1. How many rods of fence will it take to fence in 
a 160-acre farm? Estimate for differently shaped 
farms. 

2. How many locust ^posts would be required to 
fence the 160-acre farm with wire? 

3. What would be the cost of woven wire fence for 
this farm? 

4. How long should such a fence last ? 

LESSON LI 
KNOT TYINa IN ROPES 

A rainy day has come. Having read our farm papers 
until we are tired, let us go to the farm laboratory and 
practice tying knots in ropes. 

1. The tying of useful knots, rope splicing, making 
of hitching ropes, halters and other useful things of 
this kind, are industries that belong to the farm, and 
should be included in a course of agriculture for the 
schools. The teacher should provide a rope and make 
models of each of the eight knots shown in the figure, 
and hang them up before the class. 

2. Each pupil should have a piece of rope about 
one yard in length, and practice making these knots 
until he can do it with ease. 



166 



LESSORS lA AGRICULTURE 



3. Names of the useful knots : 

a. The single loop. 

b. The overhand knot. 

c. The overhand knot repeated. Used to keep the 




Fig. 49. Useful Knots 

rope from slipping before making the square knot in 
tying bundles. 

d. The square or reef knot. A strong knot which 
will not untie by pulling, but which can be easily broken 
and untied. 

e. The loop knot. Used in making a halter that 
will not slip. 

f. The figure of 8 knot. 



A HOTBET GAEDEN 167 

g. The slip knot. Commonly used in hitching 
horses to racks. 

h. The bowline knot. Used in tying the anchor 
of ships. 

Note. Practical exercises in splicing ropes, riveting 
harness, and sewing halters, etc., may be given. 

LESSON LII 

A HOTBED GARDEN 

During the latter part of this month we must begin 
to plan for our hotbeds and cold frames for our early 
vegetables and flowers. 

pjven in school the teacher and pupils ifinay well un- 
dertake to work out this lesson together. Proceed as 
follows : 

Making the hotbed. — Select a place at the south side 
of some building for the hotbed. Dig an oblong space 
three feet wide, six feet long, and eighteen inches deep. 
]\Iake a wall of posts and boards, fitting close to the 
sides of the bed. Make the back wall three feet high and 
eighteen inches above the surface of the ground. A 
piece of two-by-four joist set in from back to front 
across the middle, will make a support for the window 
sashes which are to cover the bed. When the bed is 
ready, put in a layer of strawed manure that has been 
piled for some time, fill in about nine inches of the ma- 
nure and tramp it down firmly. Then add a second 
layer of nine inches, and tramp firmly as before. 

Then spread four inches of rich garden loam over 



168 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 

the manure, and the bed is ready. Perhaps some of 
the pupils can bring whole window sashes from home 
to cover the beds. Two sashes three feet square would 
make the necessary cover. 

Plants for the hotbed. — Early lettuce, radishes, early 
Jersey Wakefield cabbages, tlie Earliana tomato, onions, 
and other vegetables may be sown thickly in rows about 




Fig. 50. A Hotbed in Wintee 

four inches apart, and by the time warm weather 
comes, the school will have plants to supply the neigh- 
borhood, the children will have seen many interesting 
things, and the school will have found a new source of 
co-operation with the home. 

Ventilating the hotbed. — In the hotbed the manure 
warmed the soil, and the glass kept the heat in the 
frame. The soil should be watered every few days, and 
on the bright days the sash should be raised to admit 
fresh air to the little seedlings. 

Draw the plan of the hotbed, and describe the 
preparation and planting. 



EUEAL FEEE MAIL DELIVEEY 169 

LESSON LIII 

RURAL FREE MAIL DELIVERY 

Using the free delivery. — As the spring approaches 
we begin to think of catalogs of seeds and plants, and 
of the agricultural bulletins, which will give us the 
latest information to help us in our work. We are for- 
tunate in having a rural free delivery at our door, and 
we shall make use of this service. 

Rural free delivery and good roads. — There is no 
modern convenience of greater importance to the coun- 
try people than the rural free mail delivery. Although 
it is not self-sustaining, and costs the people large sums 
of money, it has come to stay, for the farmer sees that its 
service is a great necessity in the promotion of his wel- 
fare. In order to promote the greater efficiency of the 
rural delivery service, and at the same time render ef- 
fective aid in the improvement of roads throughout the 
United States, the Post Office Department, and the Of- 
fice of Public Roads have entered into a plan of co-op- 
eration looking to the betterment of all roads where the 
rural service is extended. Through this co-operation, re- 
cently a county in Indiana spent $85,000 for the im- 
provement of the rural mail routes. Upon the advice of 
the Post Office Department, the Office of Public Roads 
sends its engineers to inspect and advise as to the con- 
struction of local roads. 



170 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

Practical Exercises 

1. Information About the Local Carrier 

Find out from your local carrier the following points 
of information and write them up in the record of this 
lesson : 

1. How many miles does the carrier travel in a day? 

2. What is the carrier's salary? 

3. What is the condition of the roads? 

4. How many daily and how many weekly papers 
are delivered on the route? 

5. What is the average daily stamp cancel on this 
route ? 

6. Does the postage of the route pay expenses? 

2. Row to Use the Rural Free Delivery 

Each pupil in the class should write a letter to the 
Department of Agriculture, addressed to the Secretary 
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, or better still, to 
your Congressman or Senator at Washington, and ask 
for at least ten of the following Farmers ' Bulletins : 
(Copy this letter neatly in the note-book record of this 
lesson.) 

Farmers ' Bulletins 

The Feeding of Farm Animals. 

Weeds, and How to Kill Them. 

Potato Culture. 

Fowls: Care and Feeding. 

Facts About Milk. 

Sewage Disposal on the Farm. 

Commercial Fertilizers. 

Sheep Feeding. 

Standard Varieties of Chickens. 

Some Common Birds. 

The Dairy Herd. 

Bee-keeping. 

Marketing Farm Produce. 

Meadows and Pastures. 



No. 


22. 


No. 


28. 


No. 


35. 


No. 


41. 


No. 


42. 


No. 


43. 


No. 


44. 


No. 


49. 


No. 


51. 


No. 


54. 


No. 


55. 


No. 


59. 


No. 


62. 


No. 


66. 



No. 


77. 


No. 


80. 


No. 


86. 


No. 


91. 


No. 


95. 


No. 


99. 


No. 


109. 


No. 


111. 


No. 


113. 


No. 


126. 


No. 


127. 


Ne. 


128. 


No. 


132. 


No. 


134. 


No. 


136. 


No. 


141. 


No. 


154. 


No. 


155. 


No. 


156. 


No. 


161. 


No. 


170. 


No. 


173. 


No. 


184. 


No. 


185. 


No. 


187. 


No. 


192. 


No. 


196. 


No. 


198. 


No. 


199. 


No. 


203. 


No. 


208. 


No. 


213. 


No. 


215. 


No. 


218. 


No. 


220. 


No. 


228. 


No. 


229. 


No. 


231. 


No. 


235. 


No. 


240. 


No. 


241. 


No. 


,252. 


No. 


,243. 


No, 


,245. 


No. 


,247. 


No. 


248. 


No, 


.250. 


No, 


.255. 


No, 


.256. 



EURAL FREE MAIL DELIVERY 171 

The Liming of Soils. 

The Peach Twig Borer. 

Thirty Poisonous Plants. 

Potato Diseases and Treatment. 

Good Roads for Farmers. 

Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. 

Farmers ' Reading Courses. 

Farmers' Interest in Good Seed. 

The Apple. 

Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. 

Important Insecticides. 

Eggs and Their Uses as Food. 

Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat. 

Tree-planting in Rural School Grounds. 

Earth Roads. 

Poultry Raising on the Farm. 

The Home Fruit Garden. 

How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. 

The Home Vineyard. 

Practical Suggestions for Fruit Growers. 

Principles of Horse Feeding. 

Primer of Forestry. 

Marketing Live Stock. 

Beautifying the Home Grounds. 

Drainage of Farm Lands. 

Barnyard Manure. 

Usefulness of the American Toad. 

Strawberries. 

Corn Growing. 

Canned Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies. 

Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Planting. 

Raspberries. 

Alfalfa Growing. 

The School Garden. 

Tomatoes. 

Forest Planting and Farm Management. 

The Production of Good Seed Corn. 

Spraying for Cucundier and Melon Diseases. 

Cement, Mortar, and Concrete. 

Inoculation of Legumes. 

Butter Making on the Farm. 

An Example of Model Farming. 

Fungicides and Their Use. 

Renovation of Worn-out Soils. 

The Control of the Coddling Moth and Apple Scab. 

The Lawn. 

The Prevention of Smuts in Grain. 

The Home Vegetable Garden. 

Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. 



172 LESSONS IN AGKICULTUBE 

No. 260. Seed of Eed Clover in Its Impurities. 

No. 265. Game Laws for 1906. 

No. 266. Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture. 

Note. The first rural route ever established was 

from Charlestown, West Virginia, by W. L. Wilson, 

Postmaster General, under President Cleveland. 

Sample Letter for Bulletins 

22 Perry St., Morganto\Yn, West Va.. 

February 22, 1911. 
Secretary of Agriculture, 

Washington, D. C. 
Dear Sir: — 

Please send me the following Farmers' Bulletins for free 
distribution — address as above: 

No. 109. — Farmers' Reading Courses. 

No. ]34. — Tree Planting on School Grounds. 

No. 161. — Practical Suggestions for Fruit Growers. 

No. 173. — Primer of Forestry. 

No. 185. — Beautifying the Home Grounds. 

No. 199. — Corn Growing. 

No. 218.— The School Garden. 

No. 247.— The Control of the Codling Moth. 

No. 41. — Fowls, Care and Feeding. 

No. 35.— Potato Culture. 

Also put me down to receive the Monthly List of Publications. 

I am a student of agriculture in the School. 

Yours sincerely. 



LESSON LTV 

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES 

Organization of boys ' and girls ' agricultural society. 

— In the school, early in the year, let a Friday afternoon 
be devoted to the organization of an agricultural society. 
All boys and girls should know how to organize them- 
selves, for in this way is learned that great lesson of co- 
operation so vitally needed to-day in rural life. 

Let one of the older boys, at the suggestion of the 



AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES I73 

teacher, call the meeting to order. Then let some hoy 
rise and say : 

"Mr. Chairman, 1 nominate John Reihle (for ex- 
ample) for president." Another rises and says: 

"Mr. Chairman, I second the nomination." 

Then let some one rise and say ; 

"Mr. Chairman, if there are no other nominations, 
I move that John Reihle be declared elected president 
of this society." 

Some one says, "I second the motion," then the 
boy who is acting chairman says: 

"It has been moved and seconded that John Reihle 
be declared president of this society. Are there any 
remarks?" Hearing none, he says, "All those in favor 
say, 'Aye' ". He estimates the vote. "All those op- 
posed say, 'no' ". If he receives more for than against, 
the chairman declares that John is elected. 
t John then takes the place of the chairman, and 
conducts the meeting. A secretary is then elected as 
above, preferably from among the girls. The following 
Constitution and By-Laws should be read by one of the 
pupils, and adopted by the society as a tentative work- 
ing plan : 

Constitution and By-Laws of the Green Valley School Agri 
cultural Club 

Article 1. 

The name of this society shall be the Green Valley 
School Agricultural Club. 
; Article 2. 

The objects of this society shall be to encourage the 



174 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

study of Agriculture in the school and home ; to promote 
contests in plant growing, animal raising, literary 
work, etc. ; and to cultivate a love for the farm and home. 

Article 3. 
All the boys and girls of the school over eight years 
of age are eligible for membership. Any person over 
eight and under fifteen, in the district and not in school, 
may be elected to membership by a majority vote. 

Article 4. 
The membership fee shall be ten cents, and the an- 
nual dues, five cents, payable at the beginning of the 
school year. 

Article 5. 
The officers shall consist of President, Vice-president, 
Secretary, Treasurer, Speaker, and Usher. 

Article 6. 

It is the duty of the President to preside at all meet- 
ings, preserve order, and command obedience to all 
rules. His emblem is a red ribbon worn on the lapel 
of his coat. The Vice-president assists the President and 
presides in his absence. His emblem is a blue ribbon. 
The Speaker wall assist the President and Secretary in 
arranging the literary program for the regular meetings. 
His emblem is a green ribbon. The Secretary will keep 
a record of all meetings, receive the fees and dues of the 
members, pay the same to the Treasurer, take and keep 
his receipts therefor. His emblem is the white ribbon. 

The Treasurer shall take charge of and keep all the 
money of the society, and pay out the same only upon 



AGRICULTUEAL SOCIETIES 175 

orders signed by the President and Secretary. His em- 
blem is the yellow ribbon. 

The Usher guards the door, shows members and visit- 
ors to seats, and helps the President preserve order. His 
emblem is a blue rod. 

Article 7. 

This society shall meet every two weeks at the school 
house, either in the afternoon or evening as the teacher 
decides. IMeetings may be held at the homes of members. 

Article 8. 
The order of business at the regular meetings shall 
be as follows: 

1. Roll call. 

2. Reading the minutes of last meeting. 

3. Report of committees. 

4. Proposals for membership. 

5. Voting on new members. 

6. Literary program. 

7. Miscellaneous business. 

8. Adjournment. 

By-Laws 

1. The literary program prepared by the Speaker, 
President, and Secretary, shall consist of music, recita- 
tions, readings, essays, orations, and debates. The pro- 
gram shall be announced by the Speaker, two weeks in 
advance. 

2. An annual exhibit should be arranged, perhaps 
best in the autumn, in which the boys will exhibit field 
or garden products they have grown, and the girls. 



176 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

flowers, vegetables, or cookery. In preparing for this 
exhibit, the boys should each select in the spring the 
plat of ground, not to exceed one acre, nor less than 
1-10 acre, prepare, plant or sow any crop he may de- 
sire. Send for the best seeds, either to the Department 
of Agriculture at Washington, D. C, or to the State 
Agricultural College. From either of these places the 
pupil may get liulletins on any crop he chooses to grow 
for the exhibit. 

3. The teacher and the club shall organize commit- 
tees to solicit prizes to award at the exhibit for the best 
vegetables, grain, animals, cookery, etc., brought by the 
pupils. 

4. The club shall take an annual excursion, visiting 
the farms and homes of the district. This may take the 
form of a picnic and be the happy ending of the school 
term. 

5. This constitution and by-laws may be amended at 
any meeting by a two-thirds vote, provided the proposed 
amendment is posted in the school rooms two weeks 
before adoption. 

(To the teacher:) This society may be, and if a 
Grange is in the district, should be developed into the 
Juvenile Grange, a national order, recognized by the 
Patrons of Husbandry. 

The Juvenile Grange is a most excellent organization 
for young people of the country. It has just enough 
secret work about it to make it attractive to young folks, 
and the ceremonies are beautiful and full of good les- 
sons which every boy and girl should heed. In chang- 



AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES 177 

ing the above society to the Juvenile Grange, write to 
Prof. T. C. Atkeson, Morgantown, W. Va., Overseer of 
the National Grange, or to C. M. Freeman, Tippecanoe 
City, Ohio, Secretary, for the Manual of the Juvenile 
Grange. Juvenile Granges must be organized under the 
special charge of a Subordinate Grange. 

LESSON LV 
THE GRANGE 

Let US learn something of the greatest farmers' or- 
ganization in the world — the Grange, or the Order of 
Patrons of Husbandry. 

The following facts about the Grange were submitted 
by Prof. T. C. Atkeson, Master of the West Virginia 
State Grange and Overseer of the National Grange: 

Origin of the grange, — "The idea of a farmers' 
fraternal organization originated in the mind of Oliver 
H. Kelley, a oNIinnesota farmer, while on a trip through 
the southern states in 1867, soon after the close of the 
great Civil War, where he had been sent by President 
Johnson to see what might be done to rebuild the dev- 
astated agriculture of that great agricultural region. 
Mr. Kelley was a high degree Free Mason, and naturally 
his idea of a farmers' organization took the form of a 
secret society. Soon after his return to Washington, 
where he reported to the Department of Agriculture, he 
paid a visit to his niece, Miss Carrie A. Hall, who re- 
sided in Boston, and outlined to her his proposed farm- 
ers' organization. Miss Hall suggested that farmers' 



178 LESSONS IX AGRICULTUEE 

wives and daughters be admitted on full equality with 
the men, and from the first, the organization which fol- 
lowed has made no distinction on account of sex. Mr. 
Kelley unfolded his plans to a number of gentlemen in 
the Department of Agriculture and elsewhere, who be- 
came interested in the matter. 

Patrons of Husbandry. — ' ' The first meeting was held 
in the office of William Saunders, the horticulturist of 
the Agricultural Department at Washington, on the 
evening of December the fourth, 1867, which has ever 
since been known as the birthday of the order. The or- 
ganization was named, 'Patrons of Husbandry,' and 
the word, 'Grange,' which means a farm home, was 
substituted for 'lodge' as used by other organizations. 

Officers. — "There are Subordinate, Pomona, State, 
and National Granges, each one of which is represented 
by delegates in the next highest body up to the National 
Grange which is the supreme authority. All Granges 
have the same officers as follows: Master, Overseer, 
Lecturer, Steward, Assistant Steward, Chaplain, Treas- 
urer, Secretary, Gate Keeper, Ceres, Pomona, Flora, 
and Lady Assistant Steward. 

Purposes of the grange. — "The purpose of the organ- 
ization is to promote the interest of agriculture in every 
legitimate way possible, educationally, legislatively, co- 
operatively, and socially, with a view to develop a bet- 
ter manhood and womanhood on American farms. In 
its forty odd years of history, the Grange has accom- 
plished a vast amount of good for American farmers, 
and practically every advancement made by agriculture 



THE GEANGE 179 

in that time originated with the Grange or has been ef- 
fectively promoted by it. The Grange was an important 
factor in the establishment of agricultural colleges and 
high schools, and originated the idea of teaching ele- 
mentary agriculture in the public schools. Experiment 
stations are mainly the product of Grange advocacy. 
Rural mail delivery, the Department of Agriculture, 
the Interstate Commerce Commission, and hundreds 
of other measures of state or national legislation orig- 
inated with the Grange or were promoted by it. Its 
value to agriculture is beyond computation. 

Work of the grange. — "The grange is a live institu- 
tion. It is satisfying a great need in rural society. It 
is based on correct principles: organization, co-opera- 
tion, education. It is neither a political party nor a 
business agency. It is neither ultra-radical nor forever 
in the rut. Its chief work is on cultural lines. It in 
eludes the entire family. It is now growing, and its 
growth is of a permanent character. 

"The Grange is ambitious to take its place beside 
the school and the church, as one of the trinity of forces 
that shall mold the life of the farmer on the broad- 
est possible basis — material, intellectual, social, and 
ethical. Is there any good reason why this ambition 
is not worthy, or why its goal should not be won?" 
(President Buttertield of the Mass. Agricultural Col- 
lege, from his Chapters on Rural Progress.) 



180 LESSORS IN AGEICULTURE 

Why Fanners Should Join the Grange 

(By the authority of the Master of the National 

Grange. ) 

1. Because it is inexpensive. 

2. Because it is the farmer's only organization, na- 
tional in character. 

3. Because it has stood the test for more than forty 
years, and has never been found wanting in any re- 
spect. 

4. Because it has exerted greater influence in se- 
curing state and national legislation in the interest of 
agriculture than any other agency in the country. 

5. Because it is officered by those engaged in agri- 
culture, who know from experience the needs of farm- 
ers, and are sincere in their desire to aid them in every 
possible way. 

6. Because it is the duty of farmers to co-operate 
with one another, if they would successfully meet the 
influence of organization in every direction, and secure 
for wife and home a fair share of what the harvest 
yields. 

7. Because it has exerted the greatest influence 
known in breaking up the isolation of farm life, and 
in making farm life attractive to the boys and girls, 
bringing sunshine and happiness into the farm home 
to such an extent as has never before existed. 

After the teacher has discussed this lesson with the 
pupils, all the text-books should be laid aside, and the 
pupils asked to write a brief essay in their note-books 
on the Grange, its history, plan of organization, purposes 
and work. 



MARCH 

On the farm. — With the coming of the spring months 
we begin to get interested in seeds and growing plants. 
This month on the farm we shall select our seed corn 
more carefully, make germination tests, spray our 
fruit trees against scale, prune the grape-vines, bushes, 
and fruit trees, sow clover seed in the wheat, sow oats, 
and begin planning for the com crop. It is to be a busy 
month. 

LESSON LVI 

STRUCTURE OF SEEDS 

Possibilities in seeds. — Seeds are such common ob- 
jects to farm boys and girls, that I fear sometimes we 
do not appreciate what wonderful things they are. I 
say wonderful, because no one understands all about 
them, because from them come nearly all our plants, 
and upon them we depend for most of our food. Within 
the little seed is wrapped up all the possibilities of size, 
color, flavor, shape — in fact, all the qualities of the 
grown up plant it is to become. 

Value of seeds. — Seeds are a great deal like your- 
selves. They are little plants, dressed up, carrying din- 
ner baskets, and sent forth by their parents into the 
world to grow up as nature intended them, into perfect 
plants. Ought we not to be interested in them since they 
do so much for us ? What can we do for the seeds ? We 

181 



182 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 

can care well for them, plant theui and nurture them. 
But we must learn more about them — learn how they 
are made, and why every part of the seed is formed as 
it is. 

Plants live to produce seed. — Plants grow, bear leaf, 
stem, flower, and fruit for the sole purpose of producing 
a seed. Why does the plant do so much for the sake 
of a seed? Because in the seed is the young plant and 
the food to start it, well protected against drought, 
cold, and other forces that might injure it, and if the 
old plant should die when winter comes, the seed may 
live on and produce a new plant again. 

In the practical exercises which follow, we shall see 
how the seed is made. 

Practical Exercises 
1. Stady of the Luna Bean 

To facilitate the study of seeds they should be left 
in Vv'ater over night. 

Observe the following points of the bean, and make 
a sentence note of each of the words in black type. 

1. Markings on the surface : 

(a) Scar or hilum where the seed was attached to 
the pod. 

(b) Near" the hilum a small opening, the micropyle. 

2. Remove the coat or testa. Near the hilum a small 
pointed body, the caulicle, will be seen. 

Separate the halves or cotyledons, observe that the 
■caulicle bears two small leaves, the plumule. 

The cotyledons, caulicle, and plumule constitute the 
ambryo. 



STRUCTUEE OF SEEDS 



183 



^lake a drawing of the whole bean showing these 
parts, and of^the single cotyledon with the caulicle and 
plumule in place. 

2. Study of the Grain of Corn 

Soak a few grains of corn in hot water for twenty 

minutes or use grains that have soaked in water over 

night. With a sharp knife remove the tip cap at the 

end of the kernel. Beginning at the end where the 




Fig. 51. Kernels of Corn in Sections Showing the Germ 

hull has been l)roken at the tip cap, remove the hull from 
the entire grain in strips. The part immediately under 
the hull is called the horny gluten. Carefully remove 
it by shaving it off with a sharp knife. Now remove the 
germ or embryo. Make out the caulicle and plumule 
as you did in the Lima bean. After the tip cap, hull, 



184 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

horny gluten, and germ have been removed, there re- 
mains only starch, of which there are two kinds — the 
horny starch and the white starch. The horny starch 
lies at the back and sides of the kernel. The white starch 
is at the crown end of the kernel above the germ, and 
nearly surrounds the germ toward the tip of the kernel. 
Separate as far as possible the horny starch and the 
white starch. ]\Iake an enlarged drawing of the front 
view of a grain of corn, showing and naming the parts. 

Note. All seeds except the seeds of conifers, are of 
one of these two types. In the bean, there are two 
cotyledons, and the food material of the seed is stored in 
these cotyledons. 

In the corn there is only one cotyledon, and the 
food material is stored outside of the embryo, in a part 
called the endosperm. 

3. Study of a Grain of Wheat - 

Soak a few grains of wheat in warm water. With a 
sharp knife try to remove the covering of the grain. 
There are four of these coverings on a grain of wheat, 
three epidermic layers and one testa or true seed coat. 
These coats constitute the bran and make up about 11% 
of the grain. Immediately under the testa is the en- 
dosperm. This makes up a large part of the seed and is 
the flour of commerce. Note the position, form, and 
size of the embryo. Make a diagram representing a 
cross section of a grain of wheat, showing all these parts. 

Note to Te.vchers. Send for "School Set of Eco- 
nomic Seeds," to Edgar Brown, Seed Laboratory, De- 
partment of Agi'iculture, Washington, D. C. 



GEEMINATION SEEDS, GROWTH SEEDLINGS 185 

LESSON LVII 

GERMINATION OF SEEDS AND GROWTH OF SEEDLINGS 

Plant-food in seeds. — Plants, like animals, must have 

food and drink, and like animals they perish without 




Fig. 52. Growing Corn 

them. We have told what some of these plant foods are, 
and now we shall find out the way in which the young 
plants get their first food. You will remember the little 
bean plant which you saw snugly tucked between the 
two halves of the seed. These two fleshy cotyledons, as 



186 LESSORS IX AGKICULTURE 

they are called, serve as a storehouse for the food of the 
little bean plant. In the kernel of corn the same kind 
of a little plant was seen, but instead of two cotyledon 
storehouses of food, there is only one cotyledon. We 
are often told that the plant stores up food in the seeds 
for our use, and although we do use this stored up food 
for our own food in many cases, nature intended this 
food matter, not for man, but for the little plant, to 
use for its own growth until it is large enough to get 
food for itself directly from the soil. 

Essentials to plant growth. — The little bean plant 
between the cotyledons of the seed cannot begin to grow 
or germinate with its stored up food alone ; it must have 
outside help. We usually plant the seed, and in the 
ground it finds the needed help. Of course, we know 
that in the ground the seed finds moisture, heat, and air, 
and these are the essentials of germination. These 
points we shall try to prove in the practical exercise. 
Good seed and proper conditions of soil, moisture, air, 
heat, and light are essentials to plant growth, and a 
part of the study of agriculture consists in determining 
how to control these conditions. 

Practical Exercises 
1. Essenikds of Geriiiination 

Place a dozen good seeds of any kind on a woolen 
cloth or blotting paper in each of two tin pans. Cover 
the seeds in the first pan with water and keep them com- 
pletely covered. In the second pan keep the cloth or 
paper on which the seeds are placed always moist, but 



GEEMINATION SEEDS, GROWTH SEEDLINGS 187 

do not allow water to stand around the seeds. Invert 
other tin pans over these seed pans. Which seeds ger- 
minate? Why? 

Prepare two pans of seeds as you did the second one 
above. Place one pan out of doors in a cold place, and 




Courtesy of D. W. WorMng 
Fig. 53. Germinating Corn Showing Root Hairs 

leave the other in the house where it is warm. Note 
the difference in the germination. Explain. 
2. To Show the Function of Cotyledons 
Remove the two cotyledons of a germinating bean, and 
insert the growing roots through a piece of mosquito 
netting, tied over a tumbler into the water with which 
the glass is filled. Insert another germinating bean 
from which the cotyledons have not been removed. Note 
the comparative grow^th of the two seedlings. Explain. 



188 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



3. Testing Seeds for Germination and Purity 
Send to the Extension Department of Purdue Agri- 
cultural College, at Lafayette, Indiana, enclosing 35c, 
for their collection of mounted weed seeds. This is a 
very valuable collection, and will serve in a practical 
lesson. Get samples of clover seed from the stores or 
from home, and spread out a quantity of the seed on 
a sheet of white paper. Examine it very carefully with 





mi" 


1 






;,,^*.,-1| 




^---'^'^l 


■^j 


IS 









Courtesy of D. W. Working 
FIG. 54 

a hand lens, and by the aid of the weed seed collection, 
pick out the seeds that are not clover. Count out one 
hundred seeds and determine what per cent of them 
are weed seeds. Place the remaining clover seeds, from 
which the weed seeds have been taken, on the moist cloth 
in the germinating pan, and cover for a few days. Count 
the number of seeds that failed to germinate, and calcu- 
late the percentage of good seeds there were in the origi- 
nal one hundred. At the price paid for the clover seed 



GEEMINATION SEEDS, GKOWTH SEEDLINGS 189 

with all its impurities, how much does the farmer pay 
for the pure seed? 

4. Absorption of Water in Germination 

Fill a bottle with dry pea seeds, and add as much 
water as the bottle will hold. Cork tightly, and secure 
the stopper by means of a wire. Set the bottle of peas 
aside for a few hours and note the result. Explain. 

Table showing legal weight per bushel of farm products: 

Wheat 60 lbs. Buckwheat 50 lbs. 

Peas 60 lbs. Oats 32 lbs. 

Beans 60 lbs. Clover Seed 60 lbs. 

Irish Potatoes 60 lbs. Cotton Seed 28 lbs. 

Sweet Potatoes 50 lbs. Millet 50 lbs. 

Onions 56 lbs. Orchard Grass Seed 14 ibs. 

Corn (shelled) 56 lbs. Peanuts 23 lbs. 

Corn in ear, shucked .... 70 lbs. Red Top Grass Seed .... 14 lbs. 

Eye 56 lbs. Timothy Grass Seed 45 lbs. 

Barley 48 lbs. Italian Rye Grass Seed . . 20 lbs. 

Handy Values 

A bushel requires about li/^ cubic feet of space. 

A bushel of corn in the ear requires about 2 cubic feet 
of space. 

A barrel of water requires about 4 cubic feet of space. 

A ton of hay fills about 512 cubic feet of space, or 
8x8x8 cubic feet. 

A cubic foot of water weighs 621/4 pounds. 

Note. I : All the above should be memorized. 

Note II : Pupils should also memorize table of avoir- 
dupois weight, dry measure, liquid measure, long meas- 
ure, square measure, and cubic measure, with all the 
necessary abbreviations. 



190 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 

Problems 

1. How many pounds of wheat are grown on an acre 
yielding 25 bushels? 

2. How many pounds are grown on eight acres at 
the same rate ? How many tons ? 

3. How many square rods in an acre? How many 
pounds would that be per square rod ? 

4. What is the value per acre of the above at 80c 
per bushel? 

5. At the same rate what is the value of all the 
wheat grown on a piece of land containing 240 square 
rods? 

6. At 90c per bushel what is the value of the wheat 
grown on an acre if the yield is 20 bushels? 

7. Which is the more valuable, the crop in problem 
4 or that in problem 6 ? 

8. If 20 bushels of 90c wheat can be grown on an 
acre, how many pounds is that per acre? What is the 
price per pound? How many pounds are grown on a 
square rod? What is the value of the wheat grown on 
a square rod? 

9. At the same rate and price, what is the value of 
the wheat grown on a piece of ground 14 rods wide and 
20 rods long ? 

10. How many acres in a field 40 rods long and 24 
rods wide? 

11. If a man can plow 2 acres per day, how long 
will it take him to plow the above field? What will 
it cost at $2 per day ? 



GEEMINATION SEEDS, GROWTH SEEDLINGS 191 

12. What will be the cost of plowing a 40 acre 
field at the same rate 1 

13. If a man and team can seed 8 acres per day 
how long will it take to seed a 40 acre field? What 
will it cost at $2 per day? 

14. At 50c per acre what will be the cost of cutting 
this crop ? 

15. It will cost about $0.25 per acre to stack the 
grain. Find the cost of stacking. 

16. AVhat is the threshing bill at 2 cents per bushel ? 
Find the entire cost of the crop. 

17. If the yield has been 20 bushels per acre, worth 
90 cents per bushel, how much has the farmer made 
over and above the entire cost of labor? 

18. How much has he made if the crop has yielded 
25 bushels per acre, worth $0.80 per bushel? 

19. Have any items of the cost of producing this 
wheat been omitted? If so, what? Should we allow 
for them ? Let us do so and find the result. 

20. With a crop of 50 bushels of shelled corn per 
acre, worth $0.40 per bushel, work the same series of 
problems, omitting such as do not apply to corn raising. 

LESSON LVIII 

JUDGING AND SCOEING SEED CORN 

Selecting seed corn. — We must now make a careful 
selection of our seed corn stored away last autumn. It 
is our plan to plant ten acres — field number 1, on our 



193 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

farm, and it will take about 150 ears of corn to make 
sure that we have enough. It is now time to find out 
what a good ear is, and to determine this it is necessary 
to see it in all its parts. Not knowing the germinating 
quality without actual trial, we shall have to be con- 
tent in this first step of corn judging with what might 
be termed a good show ear. The object of corn judging 
is to determine the corn of highest quality, either for 
feeding or market, and which is consequently most 
profitable to grow. 

The score card. — The study of the desirable charac- 
teristics of corn has led to the formulation of a stand- 
ard scale of points or "corn score card." The use of 
the score card has been adopted as the best means of 
comparing samples of corn, and is a valuable guide to 
the student of corn judging in estimating the merits of 
points in samples of corn. 

Samples for scoring. — In corn-judging contests or in 
schools, ten ears of corn are usually scored as a single 
sample. Each ear may be scored separately, or the whole 
ten may be averaged in one grade on each point of the 
score card. For practical planting purposes and for our 
school lesson we shall judge each ear separately. Study 
carefully the illustrations of prize corn, and note as best 
you can what may be required to make a perfect ear. 

Note. This lesson may be given in the fall in con- 
nection with Lesson 14, if so desired. 

The following score card is used by the Indiana Corn 
Growers' Association. The number opposite each of the 
twelve points represents the perfect grade : 



JUDGING AND SCOEING SEED CORN 



193 



^fame of variety Table No . 

Name of scorer Sample No . 



1. 


Trueness to 


ll|2|3|4|5 617 
1 1 1 1 1 1 


8 


9 


10 




Typo or Breed 
Characteristics 


10 


1 1 i i 








2. 


Shape of Ears 


5 










3. 


Color of Grain and Cob 


10 


1 1 1 1 








4. 


Vitality or Seed 
Condition 


10 






1 1 












5. 


Tips of Ears 


5 


















6. 


Butts of Ears 


5 


















7. 


Kernel Uniformity 


10 


















8. 


Kernel Shape 


10 






1 












9. 


Length of Ears 


5 






1 












10. 


Circumference of Ears 


5 


















11. 


Space between 
Rows and Kernels 


10 
















12. 


Proportion of 
Corn to Cob 


15 






























Total -------- 100 



1 1 I 



Explanation of the Score Card 

1. Trueness to type or breed. Ten points perfect. 
The ear should be true to the breed characteristics 

in size, shape, color, shape of kernel, etc. 

2. Shape of ear. 5 points perfect. 

The ear should be full and strong in the middle, and 
should not taper too rapidly towards the top. Rows 
should be straight. 

3. Color of grain and cob. 10 points perfect. 

The color should be true to the variety, and free from 
mixture. White corn should have white cobs, and yel- 
low corn, red cobs. Cut about one point for five or 
six colored grains. 



194 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



4. Vitality or seed condition. 10 points perfect. 
The ear should be well matured, firm, and sound. 

The germ should be large, fresh, and vigorous looking. 

5. Tips of ears. 5 points perfect. 

The tip should be regular and not too tapering. Tip 
should be well covered, with straight rows of regular 
kernels. Cut one-half point for tips exposed one inch. 

6. Butts of ears. 5 points perfect. 




Fig. 05. Prize Ears at West Virginia Corn Show 

The rows of kernels should extend in regular order 
over the end of the cob, leaving a depression when 
the shank is removed. 

7. Kernel uniformity. 10 points perfect. 

The kernels should be uniform in size, color, shape, 
and identation, and true to the variety type. 

8. Kernel shape. 10 points perfect. 

The kernels should be deep and so shaped that their 
edges touch from tip to crown. The tips of the kernels 
should be full and strong. 

9. Length of ear. 5 points perfect. 



JUDGING AND SCORING SEED CORN 



195 



The length should conform to the standard for the 
variety used. From eight to ten inches is the usual 
standard length. Cut one-half point for each inch of 
deficiency. 

10. Circumference of ears. 5 points perfect. 

The circumference should be in proportion to the 




Fig. .56. Proportion- of Corn to Cob 



length, that is, about three-fourths the length, measured 
at one-third the distance from butt to tip. For each inch 
deficiency or excess, cut % point. 

11. Space between rows and kernels. 10 points per- 
fect. 

The furrows between rows should be wide enough to 
allow the ear to dry out readily, but not so wide as to 
lose in proportion of corn to cob. Much space between 
kernels is highly objectionable. 



196 LESSONS IN ACilxMCULTUKK 

There sluniUi be not less than 16 rows, and 6 or 7 
grains to an inch in each row. 

12. Proportion of corn to cob. 15 points perfect. 

The proportion shonUl be ileterniined by weight. The 
proportion of eorn to eob shouUl not be U^ss than 86%. 
Cut l^,i.>% for each per eent beUnv the standard. 

Practical Exercises 

1. Scoring Seed Corn 

Copy the foregoing score card in your permanent note- 
book. Select ten ears of corn, keeping the idea of 
"mates'' in mind. The ears should look as much alike in 
every way as it is possible to tind them. Find ears all 
the same kuigth, the same circumfereuee, the grains the 
same size and shape, without any indii'atious of mix- 
ture, the rows running straight from tip to butt, and 
measuring up to the standard of the score card as much 
as possible. 

Grade each ear of corn on each of the points, and 
put down on the score card your estimate of how the 
ear measures up to the perfect grade. It is not ex- 
pected that you will become expert in one lesson, but 
you will enjoy the improvement you make in this work. 

S. Selecting Seed Ears 
Using the ear of corn which you have graded the high- 
est on your score card as a model, look over your entire 
lot of seed corn, and select one hundred ears which ac- 
cording to your judgment most closely resemble this 
sample ear. Number all these ears from 1 to 100, by 
tying to each a numbered tag, or by sticking a numbered 



TESTING SRFF) TORX 197 

peg into the butt of each eob. These are now to be laid 
away for the germination test described in the next les- 
son. 

LESSON LIX 

TESTING SEED CORN 

We have now selected the ears of corn with which to 
plant our ten acres on the farm. We have numbered 
each ear and jjlaced it by itself, and we are now ready 
to make the germination test, for we wish to be sure that 
every grain we plant will germinate vigorously. 

Value of good seed. — One of the most important 
modern movements for the improvement of agriculture 
in this country consists in the proper selection, care, and 
testing of the seeds to be planted. When we remember 
that the seed carries with it all the characteristics of 
the parent plants from which it came, we want to be 
sure that these parent plants are just as nearly perfect 
as possible. When we remember that the seed is a liv- 
ing thing, containing a young and tender plant, we see 
the necessity of properly caring for the seed during its 
resting period. And when we understand that sickly 
or dead seeds cannot grow into valuable plants, we shall 
no longer be willing to put them into the ground, which 
we expect to cultivate, and from which we expect to 
gather a full harvest. 

Testing seed corn for life and vigor. — It has come to 
be true that almost every farmer and country school 
boy now understands the importance of testing seed corn 
before planting — and testing it in the ear rather than 



198 LESSONS Ix\ AGRICULTURE 

after shelling. But many farmers fail to do as well as 
they know in this matter, as well as in many other mat- 
ters, because it is "too much trouble." Many farmers 
say that they can tell whether a kernel of corn will ger- 
minate by cutting or biting off the tip cap and examining 
the germ. No doubt most experienced corn growers can 
do this, but even by this simj^le method they can not tell 
which ears of corn will germinate most vigorously, and 
it is the sure and healthy germination that counts most 
throughout the entire life of the growing corn plant. 
The boys and girls of the school will want to use the 
surer and better method of testing seed corn. 
Practical Exercises 
1. The Germinating Test Box 

Make a shallow box about two inches deep inside, fif- 
teen inches wide and twenty-three inches long. Partly 
fill the box with fine sand. The box may now be di- 
vided into small squares by a checkboard lacing of wire 
or twine across the top. It is convenient to have these 
squares about IV2 inches on a side, ten of them in a 
row across the narrow way, and fifteen the other way. 
Another way to obtain the squares, is to place over 
the sand a cloth which has been checked into 100 squares 
by an indelible pencil, or better still, with ink. Num- 
ber each square from one to one hundred. The figure 
below shows the manner of wiring and numbering when 
the first method is used. 

Now take each ear separately, and with the point of a 
pocket knife remove five kernels from the ear. The 
kernels should be taken in succession from about an 



TESTING SEED COBN 



199 



inch above the base of the ear to the same distance be- 
low its tip, passing spirally around and lengthwise of 
the ear, so that no two grains are taken from the same 
row. Place the kernels in the square corresponding in 
number to the number of the ear, place the germ side of 
the kernels against the wet cloth or sand, and lay the 
ear away in its place. When the box has been planted 



i ! ^M l P^3EISIt i KS^ SlEr- 









Fig. 57. A Germinating Test Box 

the sand should be thoroughly watered. If the cloth 
has been used, the corn should be covered with a second 
wet cloth, and this with a dry cloth to prevent excess 
of evaporation. The box should be kept in a warm room 
where it will not be disturbed until the test is finished. 
The planted tray should not be allowed to dry out until 
the young corn plants are an inch or two above the sand. 
The ear that does not show all five kernels germinating 



200 LESSONS IN AGRICULTUEE 

vigorously should not be planted in the field. • Every 
poor ear planted spoils about one-fifteenth of an acre in 
the cornfield — and yet some farmers would blame it 
on the crows or the weather, or something else which 
they could not help. This is certainly a better way to 
get a ' ' stand ' ' of corn than to plant ' ' one for the black- 
bird, one for the crow, one for the cut-worm and two 
to grow." 

After selecting the ears that will be used as seed, 
place them where they will be protected from freezing, 
moulding, or getting wet. Each pupil should bring sam- 
ples of seed corn from his home and make the germinat- 
ing test at school, or have a box of his own at home and 
test the seed corn there and report the results at school. 
Keep a note-book record of the results of these tests. 

Note. The practice of smoking the seed corn before 
shelling and planting has proven an effective preventive 
against the corn-root louse and other insect pests of the 
sprouting grain. 

References: Farmers' Bulletin, No. 253, No. 409. 



LESSON LX 

THE PLANT AND WATER 

We are now ready to study the growth of the plant 
from the seed into root, stem and leaf, and to under- 
stand how the plant gets its food. We have already 
learned that the seed furnishes the food for the little 
plant until it is large enough to get food from the soil. 



THE PLANT AND WATEK 201 

We also learned in a former lesson that the most im- 
portant plant foods are: Water, lime, iron oxide, soda, 
ammonia, silicon, magnesia, potash, carbon dioxide, phos- 
phoric acid, etc. 

Water as a plant food and solvent. — Perhaps the 
most important plant food is water. Every one knows 
that plants cannot live without water, but few persons 
stop to think of the enormous amount of water consumed 
daily by an acre of growing vegetation. Plants make 
use of water in two ways. In the first place they use 
it as a food, just the same as animals do. In the sec- 
ond place a plant cannot eat solid food. It has neither 
mouth nor teeth, and it must take in its food in liquid 
form through its roots, or in gaseous form through its 
leaves. The solid foods mentioned above dissolve in wa- 
ter, just as sugar dissolves in coffee, and in this dissolved 
condition they are easily taken in by the plant roots. 
The plant fluid containing these dissolved foods is called 
sap. The solid food and some of the water taken up 
by the plant roots and carried through the stem to the 
leaves is used by the plant for growth, and the re- 
maining water not used for food is thrown off into the 
air through little pores in the leaves. This is :he rea- 
son why plants need so much water. Grains, grasses, 
and orchards use up hundreds of tons of water during 
the growing season. 

Control of water for plants. — We have also learned 
that the farmer can regulate the amount of water in 
the soil to a certain extent. If there is too much water. 



203 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



he can drain it away. If there is need of saving all 
the rainfall possible, he can by deep plowing and 




Fig. 58. Diagram of a Plant, Showing Its Most Important Rela- 
tions : Sunlight, Moisture, Oxygen, and Soil 



careful cultivation save a large share of the moisture 
in a time of drought. 



THE PLANT AND WATER 



203 



Practical Exercises 

To Prove that Plants Throw off Water 

Put the same amount 
of water into similar 
vessels — tumblers or 
glass fruit jars. Pull 
up any thrifty growing 
plant and put its roots 
into one of these vessels 
of water. Stand both 
vessels on a table side 
by side. Note the dif- 
ference in the amount 
of water in each vessel 
day by day. What has 
caused the loss of water 
in each vessel? Why 
the difference? 

The same fact may be 
shown by placing a clean dry glass vessel over a grow- 
ing plant. Where does the moisture come from that 
appears on the inner surface of the glass? How can 
you show that this does not come from the soil? 
^. Air-derived and Soil-derived Foods 
Select a dry plant or a piece of dry wood. Weigh it 
carefully. Now burn it and weigh the ashes. What 
per cent of the plant burned? What per cent is ashes? 
The ashes represent the food derived from the soil when 
the plant was growing, and the part that burned repre- 
sents the food derived from the air. 




204 LESSONS IX AGRICULTUEE 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 

Farmers' Bulletins 

No. 46. — Irrigatiou in Humid Climates. 

No. 116. — Irrigation in Fruit Growing. 

No. 138. — Irrigation in Field and Garden. 

No. 158. — How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. 

Table showing proportions of water in farm crops: 

One bushel of root crops contains about 55 pounds of water. 

One bushel of potatoes contains about 45 pounds of water. 

One bushel of corn (dry, shelled) contains about 5 pounds of 
water. 

One bushel of wheat contains about 6 pounds of water. 

One bushel of oats contains about 3 pounds of water. 

One ton of dry hay contains about 300 pounds of water. 

One ton of green feed contains from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds of 
water. 

Note. This represents only the water left in the plants and 
seeds as a part of them. By far the greater amount used by the 
plant passes off to the air through the pores in the leaves. 

Problems 

1. If rain falls an inch deep on the level, how many 
cubic inches is that per square foot ? Per square yard ? 
Per square rod ? How many cubic feet per square rod ? 
Per acre ? 

2. About how many barrels of water fall on an acre 
with one inch rainfall? 

3. How many tons will this water weigh? 

4. The total rainfall during the year in West Vir- 
ginia is about four feet. What does the water weigh 
that falls during the year on a square yard of ground? 
On a square rod ? How many tons to the acre ? 

5. Suppose the plants use one-eighth of this, what 
is the weight of the water used by a square yard of 
vegetation ? A square rod ? An acre ? 

6. Suppose potatoes contain three-fourths of their 



BOOT SYSTEM OF PLANT 205 

weight of water. How many pounds of water in a 
bushel of potatoes? 

7. If 150 bushels per acre of potatoes is a good yield, 
how many pounds of water in the potatoes grown on an 
acre? 

LESSON LXI 

THE EOOT SYSTEM OF THE PLANT 

Kinds of root systems.— The root system of the plant 
consists of the entire group of roots upon the plant. 
There are two kinds of root systems : 

(1) Tap-root — central main root with smaller roots 
coming out from it. Examples may be found in the 
beet, radish, and turnip. 

(2) Fibrous root — many roots of nearly the same 
size. Examples of this type are seen in the grasses, 
such as timothy and blue grass. Either of these two 
types may have many modifications. 

Roots and tillage. — Methods of cultivation should 
take into account the nature of the roots of the plants. 
Tap-rooted plants require depth of soil, and will permit 
deeper and closer cultivation than fibrous rooted plants. 
On the other hand, fibrous rooted plants, such as the 
corn, are often injured by too deep cultivation during 
the growing season. The fibrous roots of such plants 
are near the surface of the ground, and when destroyed 
by deep cultivation, much of the food supply of the 
plant is cut off, and to that extent the plant is injured 
or retarded in its growth. 



206 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



Root-hairs. — On the roots of the corn in our germina- 
tion test box, we saw great numbers of fine root-hairs. 
These are the principal feeding organs of the plant. 
They have the power to transfer the water and the 
plant food from the soil to the rootlets. If water does 
not exist as capillary water in the soil, the root-hairs 
are unable to do their work. 

Purpose of roots. — The root system in all its mod- 
ifications serves three purposes to the plant : 

(1) It absorbs and conducts water and plant food 
dissolved in the water. 




Fig. 81. Root Systems of Plants 

(2) It reaches long distances in the ground and thus 
holds the plant firmly in its place. 

( 3 ) It furnishes a storehouse for much food material, 
as in the case of the radishes, beets, and turnips. 

Practical Exercises 

1. A Study of Boots 

Dig up a clover plant and remove the soil from it. 
Observe that it has a strong central root which joins 
the stem. jMake a drawing of the clover root system. 

Dig up a single timothy plant with as many of its 



EOOT SYSTEM OF PLANT 



207 



roots as possible, and remove the soil from them. Ob- 
serve the many similar roots projecting from the stem. 
Make a drawing of the root system of the timothy. 

Examine the beet, turnip, or carrot. Observe that 
these vegetables are a thickened or fleshy tap-root, and 
contain large quantities of stored food material. Make 
a drawing of this type of "root. 

Make a list of the common plants of the farm, and 
classify them as to the character of their root system 
under the following divisions : 




2. The Boot System of the Corn Plant 

Carefully remove as much of the entire root system 
of a growing corn plant as possible. Wash all the soil 
away from the roots. Remove and measure each root 
separately, and find the total length of the whole root 
system. 

Place a corn seedling with its root system in a glass 
of water, which has been colored with red ink. Note 
the rise of the colored liquid into the stem and leaves. 
Explain. 



208 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

LESSON LXII 

CLOVER AND OTHER LEGUMES 

On some mild day in JNlareh, when the wind is not 
blowing and the ground is thawing, we shall sow clover 
seed in our wlieat field, number 2, on the farm. It will 
require about one bushel of seed to sow the ten acres, 
and our seed will cost about $7 or $8. We must charge 
this to our expense account to be balanced up with 
profits later. 

Restoring nitrogen to the soil. — Nitrogen is the 
element which under ordinary conditions of farming 
is likely to be soonest exhausted. The farmer's atten- 
tion must early be turned to methods of restoring nitro- 
gen to his soil. Of course the best method of restoring 
all elements of fertility to the soil is by the use of barn- 
yard manure, but it is not always possible to do this. 
There is a class of plants, however, called legumes, that 
have the power of adding nitrogen to the soil. Peas, 
beans, clovers, alfalfa, etc., belong to this class. It is 
the purpose of this lesson to discover how these plants 
add nitrogen to the soil. 

Nitrogen in the air.— Air is composed largely of two 
gases, nitrogen and oxygen. About one-fifth of the air 
is oxygen and the other four-fifths is nitrogen. It is 
the oxygen that causes iron to rust, coal to burn, or 
wood to decay. On the other hand, nitrogen does not 
combine readily with other substances. It dilutes the 
oxygen of the air by being mixed with it, and prevents 
the oxygen from burning up everything in the world, 



CLOVER AND OTHER LEGUMES 



209 



and thus makes the air fit for animals to breathe. Farm 
erops cannot use this "free" nitrogen that is in the air. 

Nitrogen - gathering bacteria. — Little plant - like 
germs, called bacteria, live in the soil, and these feed 
upon this free nitrogen in the air. These germs fasten 
themselves to the roots of the legumes, such as clover 
and cowpeas, and build 
little colonies that are 
called tubercles. These 
tubercles are about as 
large as pinheads, and 
may easily be seen on 
the roots of clover, 
beans, and peas. The 
interesting thing about 
these germs is that they 
do not seem to grow 
without the clover, and 
the clover does not 
thrive without the 
germs. In most soils 
the germs will find the 
clover, but occasionally soils from old clover fields have 
to be sprinkled over the new clover fields in order for 
the young clover to ''catch." 

These germs found in the tubercles on the roots of 
legumes, in feeding upon the nitrogen of the air, store 
large quantities of the nitrogen in the plant and in the 
soil about the plant. If this crop is plowed under, 
additional nitrogen is added to the soil, and 




Fig. 59. 



Tubercles on the Roots 
OF Soy Beans 



210 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



the physical properties of the soil are also im- 
proved by the humus which the clover affords. This is 
the secret of clover-growing on the farm. Crimson 
clover, cowpeas, soy l)eans, and vetch will serve the same 
purpose to the farmer as the red clover, and each farmer 
must learn which of these legumes are best suited to his 
locality. 




Fig. 60. Leaves op Legumes 

Practical Exercises 

1. Ohservational Studies of the Legumes 

Find in the fields and bring to the school for study 

the following legumes, or as many of them as possible: 

Clovers, cowpeas, vetch, beans, alfalfa, black locust, etc. 

Be sure that you find roots of clover showing the tuber- 



CLOVER AND OTHER LEGUMES 211 

eles or nodules on them. The following outline for study 
is suggested. (Make all records of your observation and 
your drawings in your notebook) : 

1. Observe the number, size, shape, and arrangement 
of the leaves. Make a drawing of each kind of legume 
leaf you have. 

2. Observe the number and length of the stems from 
a common root. Are the stems erect, spreading, trailing, 
or twining ? 

3. Are there many, few, or no branches? 

4. If in bloom notice the place, size, form, and color 
of the blossom. Make a drawing of the blossom of each 
legume. 

5. If in seed, note the kind, number, and shape of 
the seed pods. Note the number of seeds in the pods, 
and the size and form of a single seed. Draw a seed 
pod, and an enlarged sketch of a single seed. 

6. Observe the form, size, number, and length of the 
roots. Look closely for nodules on the roots. Make a 
drawing of the roots of one legume. 

2. Solving Legumes 
Write a paragraph describing the methods of sowing 
clover seed, alfalfa, cowpeas, or any other legume which 
you have seen sown at home or in the neighborhood. 

Problems 

(See page 1^8.) 

1. How does clover compare with other kinds of hay 
in the amoant of nitrogen it contains? Phosphoric acid? 
Potash ? 



212 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

2. If two tons of hay per acre is an average yield, 
how much of each fertilizer is removed yearly with the 
crop from eight acres of ground? 

3. Wliich kind of hay makes the richest manure? 
Why? 

4. How much more of nitrogen in a crop of twenty- 
five acres of clover hay, yielding three tons per acre, 
than in the same number of acres of mixed hay yielding 
two tons per acre ? Where does this extra nitrogen come 
from ? 

5. How many tons of each kind of hay did you 
raise on the farm last year? 

6. How many tons of hay did you sell last year? 
How many pounds of each of the three important kinds 
of "soil fertility" did you sell? How many pounds 
altogether ? 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 

No. 89. — Cowpeas. 

No. 194.— Alfalfa Seed. 

No. 214. — Beneficial Bacteria for Leguminous Crops. 

No. 215.— Alfalfa Growing. 

LESSON LXIII 

CROP ROTATION 

Necessity for crop rotation.— The sowing of clover 
seed on our wheat ground and the spring planning for 
corn, suggests the subject of crop rotation. If we are 
to farm wisely and be prosperous, we must study and 
practice crop rotation. The farmer tries to raise those 
crops which will give him the largest returns in money. 



CEOP ROTATION 213 

but in doing this he often loses sight of the future. He 
may reason thus : "If corn is a high price and my 
soil will raise good corn, then corn is the crop for me 
to raise." So year after year he raises corn on the 
same fields until he finds that his soil will not raise a 
good crop of corn. The cause is not far to seek. Corn 
requires the same kind of plant food year after year, 
and unless this food is restored in some way, the soil 
becomes exhausted of some of its fertility. So the farmer 
needs to consider, not only the returns he will get from 
his crop this year, but the effect that the crop will have 
upon the soil. 

Cover crops. — On all sloping lands, if neglected, the 
soil may wash into gullies, and in a few years a fer- 
tile field may be completely ruined. Such lands should 
be kept in grass as much as possible, and when such 
lands are cropped, the rows should run lengthwise the 
hill and not up and down the slope, thus checking the 
tendency to wash. One of the best means of preventing 
washing of the soil is to plant a crop in the fall that 
will cover the ground thickly before freezing weather, 
and thus not only hold the soil, but prevent its being 
packed by the rain. Such crops are called cover crops. 
Rye or the clovers are especially used for this purpose. 

A system of crop rotation. — Crop rotation consists 
in growing one kind of crop on the ground this year, 
another kind of crop requiring different plant foods the 
next year, still another the year following, and so on, 
the crops following each other in succession, and at regu- 
lar intervals. For example, our field number 2 (see 



214 LESSOAS IN AGRICULTUEE 

map of the farm) at present in wheat will be sown to 
clover this spring. After the wheat is cut in July, the 
clover will be allowed to grow all summer and fall, and 
to go into the winter as a cover crop, with all the ad- 
vantages mentioned above. Next spring the clover 
will be allowed to grow into blossom, and will then be 
cut for hay. A second crop of the clover will spring 
up, and we allow this to go to seed and to be thrashed 
out in September, or to go into the winter as a cover 
crop again. The following spring we shall plow under 
the clover, and plant our field to corn. The following 
September we may sow the field to wheat, and the next 
spring return to clover again. This system of rota- 
tion is well suited to the central states. Of course, there 
may be special reasons for modifying it, and other 
methods of rotation equally good will occur to the 
thoughtful farmer. 

Results of rotation. — During this rotation period a 
cover crop has been plowed under, and a sod of clover 
two years old has been turned into the soil. The clover 
has added to the food supply for the two grain crops, 
and has improved the texture of the soil by the humus 
it will produce, besides it has furnished pasture, hay, 
cover crop, and seed in the meantime. If the clover 
sod be treated with lime and phosphoric acid, just be- 
fore it is turned under for the corn crop, the yield of 
the corn will be greatly increased, and the wheat fol- 
lowing the corn in the rotation, will be favorably affected 
by the additional fertilizer. 



CEOP ROTATION 



215 



Practical Exercises 

1. Systems of Crop Eotations 
Copy the two following systems of crop rotation in 
your notebook and memorize them : 



(a) Sow clover seed in the wheat in March or April. 

(b) Harvest the wheat as usual, and allow the clover 
to remain as a cover crop for the winter. 

(c) Plow up the clover sod the following April. 

(d) Plant to corn. 

(e) Sow wheat in the corn in September. 

(f ) Sow clover seed in the wheat again in March. 



II 

If the land is much reduced or of a poor soil, the 
rotation begins and proceeds as in (I) above, except 
at (c), instead of plowing up the clover for corn in the 
spring, allow it to stand another season. A hay crop 
may then be harvested in June or July, and a seed crop 
in the following September, after which proceed as 
in (I). 

Tabulate the following in your notebook : 

Rotation of Crops 



Series a. 


Series b. 


Series c. 


Series d. 


Values of Rotation. 


Clover 
Corn 
Wheat 
Clover 


Clover 
Hay and 

seed 
Corn 
Wheat 
Clover 


Clover 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Clover 


Clover 

Corn 

Potato 

Wheat. 

Clover. 


Preserves food supply. 
Increases food supply. 
Eradicates weeds. 
Exterminates insects. 
Enlarges the resources. 



216 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

2. Crop Eotations on the Home Farm 
Describe the system of crop rotation used on your 
father's farm. Give in detail each step as the outline 
suggests above. 

Compare the system used at your home with those 
described by the other members of the class. Criticize 
and discuss the various methods. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 
No. 289. — Practices in Crop Rotation. 
No. 320. — Relation of Sugar Beets to General Farming. 

Problems 

1. If corn is planted in rows four feet apart each 
way, how many hills to the acre? With three good ears 
to the hill, how many ears to the acre! 

2. If it takes 100 ears to make a bushel, how many 
bushels to the acre ? 

3. Which is the better crop ? Five stalks to the hill 
that bear ears requiring 200 to make a bushel, or three 
stalks to the hill that bear ears requiring 100 to make 
a bushel 1 

4. How many bushels per acre is one crop better 
than the other ? 

5. Suppose a ten-acre field produces sixty bushels 
of corn per acre the first year, but falls off five bushels 
per acre yearly when corn is continually grown on it, 
what will be the yield the fourth year ? 

6. What will be the total loss in the four years? 
With corn worth 30 cents per bushel, what is the money 
loss? 

7. Suppose this loss can be avoided by rotation of 



SPRAYING FOR SCALES 217 

crops. What is saved yearly, per acre, on this basis 
from rotation of crops? 

8. "What is the value of one acre of tobacco, 1,500 
pounds, at 8 cents per pound? 

9. What is the value of one acre of oats, sixty bush- 
els, at 30 cents per bushel? 

10. What is the value of one acre of clover, three 
tons, at $6 per ton? , 

11. AVhat is the value of one acre of corn, fifty 
bushels, at 40 cents per bushel? 

12. What is the value of one acre of peas, twenty 
bushels, at $1.50 per bushel? 



LESSON LXIV 

SPRAYING FOR SCALES 

During this month we must spray our peach and apple 
trees to rid them of San Jose and other scale insects, 
or to insure against them should there be none present. 
The reason for doing this work in March is because 
the insecticides we must use against the scale would be 
injurious to the foliage of the trees. 

San Jose scale. — The San Jose scale is one of the 
most dreaded enemies of the fruit trees. In most states 
it is an illegal act to sell fruit trees infested with it. 
This insect is very minute, yet it spreads rapidly and 
soon covers the branches of the trees with a grayish 
scale, beneath which is the living pest, sucking the life 
from the tree. Probably the best thing to do when one 



218 



LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 



finds that the scale has almost completely covered his 
fruit trees, is promptly to cut down and burn the trees 
that are in a dying condition. If taken in time there 
are several insecticides that may be successfully used. 
There are a number of reliable firms that put up ready 




Fig. 61. a. 



Oyster Shell Scale 

Scale 



Coiirtcny of W. E. Rumsey 
B. Scurfy Scale, c. San Jose 



mixed preparations, such as the lime-sulphur solutions, 
whale-oil soaps, and the miscible oils, and where only a 
few trees are to be sprayed, it is best to buy the ready- 
made mixtures. Full and easily followed directions for 
use accompany the materials. 



SPRAYING FOR SCALES 219 

Lime-sulphur. — If one wishes to prepare his own 
spray material, the best insecticide for scale when the 
plant is in the dormant season is the lime-sulphur wash, 
prepared as follows : 

Lime 8 pounds. 

Sulphur 16 pounds. 

Water 10 gallons. 

Boil together for about forty minutes, then dilute one 
gallon of the mixture with ten of water. The solution 
is now ready for the spray pump. 

Practical Exercises 
1. Spraying for Scale 

It may not seem possible for the school to do the prac- 
tical work suggested in this exercise, but every effort 
should be made to make it possible. 

If any farmer in the neighborhood has a spray pump, 
ask him to loan it for use at the school. He may have 
a gallon of ready-mixed lime-sulphur solution which he 
would let you have. Dilute the gallon to about ten or 
twelve gallons with water, place in the spray pump, and 
spray a few trees in the vicinity of the school. Make a 
notebook record of this lesson. 

f. Spraying House-plants against Lice 
The following mixture is often used for scale and 
plant lice when the foliage is on the trees, or it may 
be used to rid house plants of the plant lice or scale : 

Hard soap 1 oz. 

Water 1 pt. 

Kerosene 2 pts. 



220 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

Shave the soap into the water and heat almost to 
boiling. Remove the soap solution from the fire, and 
add the kerosene. Stir the mixture into a creamy con- 
sistency. Now dilute this mixture with two gallons of 
water, and it is ready to apply to the foliage. This 
mixture is called kerosene emulsion. 

Both the lime-sulphur and the kerosene emulsion de- 
stroy the sucking insects by corroding their bodies and 
stopping up their breathing pores. 

Problems 

1. Fifty gallons of properly diluted lime-sulphur so- 
lution will spray about twenty young fruit trees. The 
material for a fifty-gallon barrel will cost about $1. 
How much will it cost to spray 100 trees? 

2. What are the proportions necessary to make up a 
barrel of kerosene emulsion, using the same as suggested 
in the second exercise given above? 

3. How much will it cost to spray the five acres 
of orchard on our forty-acre farm, counting one acre 
in peach trees and four acres in apple trees? The 
apple trees are ten years old, and the peach trees seven 
years old. Determine the number of trees of each that 
should occupy the ground. 

Reference: Farmers' Bulletin, No. 127. 



PRUNING FRUIT TREES 221 



LESSON LXV 



PRUNING FRUIT TREES 

Time to prune. — Before the buds of the trees begin 
to swell and the leaves to appear we must prune our 
vines and fruit trees. Perhaps there are old trees that 
should be renewed, young trees that have dead or crowd- 
ed limbs to be removed, or mild prunings to be made 
on very young trees and vines. Proper pruning requires 
much skill and study, and each tree is a separate problem 
in pruning. 

Reasons for pruning. — We prune for the following 
reasons : 

1. To modify the vigor of the tree. 

2. To produce larger and better fruit. 

3. To keep the tree within manageable shape and 
limits. 

4. To remove superfluous or injured parts. 

5. To facilitate spraying and harvesting. 

6. To facilitate tillage. 

7. To produce new wood growth. 

Mild pruning every year tends to maintain the bal- 
ance of the tree, aids the fruit grower more easily and 
surely to shape the tree to his ideal, and makes the 
tree more fruitful. 

Pruning young trees. — In pruning very young trees, 
that is, one- and two-year-old stock just set out, two 
methods are usually pursued : 

First, the method of cutting off all the side branches 
to one or two buds, leaving a straight central stem which 



222 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

is headed back severely. This method is used especially 
in pruning young peach trees. 

Second, the method of cutting away all of the branches 
but one leader and three or four main side branches, 
cut back to four or five buds, left to furnish the bases 
of the lower spreading limbs. This method is used with 
two-year-old apple trees in starting the first main 
branches. 

It is best to leave tiie branches growing rather low 
down on the trunk of the young tree in order to af- 
ford shade for the trunk and ground beneath, and to 
facilitate the spraying and the gathering of the fruit. 
Fruit trees are not grown for lumber, but for fruit, 
and peaches and apples will not grow on the trunks of 
trees. 

Renewing- old orchards. — It is a fascinating pleasure 
to buy and set out young trees, and to look forward 
to the time when they will repay us for the long wait 
and careful tending. But there is that long interim 
between the planting and the harvesting which we must 
expect. Perhaps while we are waiting for the young 
trees, we are forgetting the old orchard that stands neg- 
lected, though still trying to renew its life wfth the com- 
ing of every season. Let us turn to these old trees 
with the same skill and labor that we are bestowing on 
our young trees, and they will repay a hundredfold, 
yielding us an abundance of fine fruit before our young 
trees have learned to blossom. 

The tops of the trees are old and high, and from 
their unexplored and unsprayed heights, only a few 



PEUNING FEUIT TREES 



wormy apples drop prematurely 
or one-half of this top, and 
the new life of the tree will 
manifest itself in a vigorous 
growth of water sprouts, 
lower down on the tree. 
These should then be cut 
away the next year, except a 
few which should be pruned 
and left to form new 
branches. All cut surfaces 
should be painted with white 
or red lead to prevent decay. 

The dead and dying 
branches, which are always 
found in old trees, should 
be removed, and all such 
branches should be cut close 
to the main stem from which 
they branch. The dead 
branches are a menace to the 
rest of the orchard, for in 
them live and breed the in- 
sect and fungous pests. 

Perhaps in our old trees 
there are bad forks. These 
should be bolted together. 
Perhaps there are great rot- 
ten cavities. These should be 



Cut away one-third 




Fig. 62. Young Apple Tree 

Properly Pruned for 

Setting Out 



cleaned out, washed with copper sulphate solution, and 



224 LESSONS IX AGE [CULTURE 

filled with cement. The rough bark should be scraped 
off, and the trunk of the tree washed with lime or soap 
suds. The trees should then be sprayed for scale, as 
suggested in the last lesson, and when the blossoms fall 
next month, the trees should be sprayed for codling 
moth, as will be explained in a later lesson. If the soil 
in our old orchard is poor and has not been cultivated 
for many years, a top-dressing of stable manure and 
lime worked into the soil will help to renew it, and bring 
the old trees into new fruitfulness. 

Practical Exercises 

' 1. Pruning a Young Apple Tree 

Bring to the schoolroom young nursery stock — ap- 
ples and peach trees, one and two years old. Select a 
good specimen of apple tree that has grown several 
side branches and a strong leader. Prune back the side 
branches to four or five buds, leaving an outside bud 
just below the cut surface on each pruned branch. Head 
back the leader to six or seven buds. The little tree 
is now ready to enter its season of growth. 

Next ^larch the portion of the tree left as a leader 
the year before would have to be pruned as the little 
tree was at first, and so on until a scaffold of strong, 
stocky branches were formed low down on the trunk of 
the tree. See figure 62. 

S. Pruning an Old Apple Tree 
Go to an old orchard where the trees have been neg- 
lected and have grown tall and unshapely. First cut 
out all dead and dying branches. Remove all limbs 



PEUNING FEUIT TREES 225 

that cross each other and rub together, or that grow 
toward the center of the tree. Cut all the top branches 
down at least one-third or one-half of the crown of 
the tree. Always notice to cut a large limb off just 
above a branch that is to be left, in order that the 
leaves on this branch may help to heal the wound. Cover" 
all wounds with paint. Be careful in sawing large 
limbs that they do not split down as they fall. Saw 
an inch or two into the limb on the under side and 
back of the cut which removes the limb. All limbs re- 
moved should be cut close to the main branches from 
which they are taken in order that the wound may heal 
properly. Experience has shown that this is the 
l)est way to renew the old trees. Within three years 
after such severe treatment, if properly followed up 
with careful pruning of the water sprouts, the tree 
will bear large quantities of fruit on a newly formed 
tree-top. (See cut beloAv.) 

Eeference: Farmers' Bulletin No. 181. 




Fig. 62a. Old Apple Trees Pruned 



APRIL 

On the farm. — During this month we shall be very 
busy on the farm. There is spring plowing to do, gar- 
den to make, trees and shrubs to plant, fruit trees to 
propagate and spray, and corn to plant. 

LESSON LXVI 

GRAFTING FRUIT TREES 

In the early April when the sap begins to flow in the 
fruit trees, we shall propagate some new varieties of 
apples in the tops of the older trees. By a process 
known as grafting, we can force trees to produce dif- 
ferent varieties of fruits. There are two common meth- 
ods of grafting — the tongue or whip graft, and the cleft 
graft. 

Practical Exercises 

1. The Tongue Graft 
If the class cannot go to an orchard for this lesson, 
bring several branches of apple tree into the school- 
room. Choose a stock upon which you intend to graft 
the desired variety. Then select from the variety de- 
sired a twig that is about the thickness of the young 
tree at the point where you wish to graft. Be careful 
to select the shoot or scion from a healthy part of the 
tree. Cut the scion and stock as you would the mouth 
parts of a boy's whistle, then make a vertical slit across 
the cut surface. Join the cut end of the scion to the 

226 



GRAFTING FEUIT TREES 



227 



cut end of the stock and wrap with raffia or waxed 
cord. When you join them, notice that under the bark 
of each is a thin layer of soft, juicy tissue. This is 
called the cambium. To make a successful graft, the 




Fig. 63. Whip Grafting 
a, Scion ; b, stock ; c, united ; d, tied. 

cambium in the scion must exactly join the cambium in 
the stock. 

2. The Cleft Graft 
For the grafting of larger scions or for the grafting 
of scions of various kinds of apple trees upon the 
branches of one stock, the cleft graft method is used. 



228 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



The stock is cut square across, and the scions, either 
one or two, are cut into wedges at the end, and slipped 
into a cleft of the stock. The cambium of the scions 
must come in contact with the cambium of the stock 
as in the former method. After the scions are forced 




Pig. 64. Cleft Grafting 
Prepared scion ; b, scions in place ; 
c, graft waxed over. 

into the cleft of the stock, the whole exposed surface, 
and the cleft left open, should be covered with the graft- 
ing wax. (See figure.) (1 part tallow, 2 parts beeswax, 
and 4 parts resin. ) 

Trees may. be budded or grafted upon one another 
only when they are nearly related. There are some rare 
exceptions to this rule. 

Have pupils write a description of these methods and 
make drawings of the grafts. Each pupil in the class 
should make these grafts for himself, and if possible, 
the work should be done in the orchard. 

Eeferenees: Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 113, 161, 154, and 157. 



PROPAGATION FROM CUTTINGS 



229 



LESSON LXVII 

PLANT PROPAGATION FROM CUTTINGS 

Purposes of plant propagation. — The purpose of all 
plant propagation is to obtain more individual plants 
or newer strains of plants; to perpetuate a particular 
variety; or to renew the generation and keep the stock 
from dying out. Most farm crops and garden vege- 




FiG. 65. Stem Cutting, or Slip, of 

COLEUS 

tables reproduce the varieties wanted from seeds; but 
most fruit trees and shrubs do not, and in such cases 
the plants have to be reproduced by buds, grafts, layers, 
or cuttings. We have already learned how plants propa- 
gate by seeds, and how fruit trees may be made over 
to the desired varieties by grafting. There remains an- 
other common method of plant propagation to study, 
known as cuttings. Cuttings may be made from soft or 



230 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



unripe wood, or from hard and fully matured wood. 
Of the soft kinds are cuttings (or slips) of geraniums, 
fuchsias, and the like. Of the hard kinds are cuttings 
of grapes and currants. 

Soft cuttings. — Soft cuttings are made of shoots 
which are sufficiently mature to snap when bent double. 
They are composed of from one to three joints of the 
plant. The leaves of cuttings are removed from the 




Fig. 66. Leaf Cutting — Whole Leaf 

lower end, and if the upper leaves are large, they should 
be cut in two to prevent too rapid drying out. Sandy 
soil free from vegetable matter is best for soft cuttings. 

Hardwood cuttings. — Hardwood cuttings are usually 
taken in the fall or winter. They are composed of two 
or more buds. If these cuttings are taken in the fall, 
they are buried in sand to be kept until spring, when 
they are set in the ground up to the top bud. However, 
such cuttings may be taken and placed during this 
month. 



PKOPAGATION FEOM CUTTINGS 331 

Practical Exercises 

1. Soft Cuttings 
Provide a neat painted window-box; fill it with moist 
sand and keep in a warm place. Bring stem cuttings 
of geraniums, coleuses, fuchsias, begonias, or other house 
plants, which may be obtained from home, insert the 
slips into the moist sand, and firm the sand well about 
the cuttings. Remove all but two or three of the leaves. 
Keep the sand warm and moist, and watch the growth 
from day to day. 




Fig. 67. Guapevine Well Trellised 

The leaves of the Rex begonia and wax plant may 
be propagated by inserting the edge of the leaf or 
even a piece of the leaf in sand and supplying it with 
plenty of moisture and warmth. A leaf may be laid 
flat, right side up, on the surface of the sand and fas- 
tened down at intervals by splinters through the veins. 
Plants will spring up at the bottom edges of the leaf or 
at cut places in the veins. 

S. Hardwood Cuttings 

Select a dozen or more freshly made cuttings of grape 
vines, taken from the previous year's growth. The cut- 
tings should consist of three or four buds. Spade up 
and thoroughly pulverize the soil in some warm rich 



332 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

corner of the school grounds, making a plot about three 
feet square. Insert the grape cuttings in a slanting 
position in the fine, loose soil, leaving one bud exposed. 
Press the soil very firmly about the cuttings, and cover 
the plot with a mulch of hay or grass, except the ex- 
posed buds of the cuttings. If the plot could be kept 
well watered all summer, and free from weeds, a fine 
lot of new grape plants would grow, ready to be set 
permanently the next spring. 

Poplar and willow trees may easily be propagated 
from hardwood cuttings. 

References: Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 157 and 218. 

LESSON LXVIII 

PROPAGATION OF RASPBERRIES 

Layering'. — The black raspberry illustrates a method 
of plant propagation, known as layering. A layer is a 
shoot or root, which while still attached to the plant, 
is made to take root with the intention that it shall be 
severed and form an independent plant. In the case of 
the black raspberry, the tip of the stem or the whole 
stem is bent to the ground and covered with earth. At 
the tip or the joints, as the case may be, roots are emit- 
ted. The layers are usually allowed to remain one sea- 
son before they are severed and set out as new plants. 
Almost any plant having shoots which can be bent to 
the ground can be propagated by layers; but the best 
result in layering is obtained in plants which have 
rather soft wood. 



PROPAGATION OF RASPBEREIES 



233 



Practical Exercises 
1. Field Practice in Layering 
Go to some neighboring garden or berry patch and 
find black raspberry plants that have bent over during 
the previous summer and taken root at the tips. Pull 
up one of the tips and- note the beginning of a new 
root system. See if you can find where a new stem has 
already begun to grow from a tip layer. Cut off the 
stem that has bent over, about six or eight inches above 
where the tip has rooted. Dig up the roots at the tip, 




Fig. 68. Raspberry Layering 

and 3^ou have a little raspberry plant that is ready to 
be transplanted. j\Iake some tip layers by bending 
down other stems and covering the tips with earth. 
To prune the raspberry vines, cut away the last year's 
bearing canes. Cut back the present year's growth to 
about three feet during the month of July. 

Notice that the red raspberry does not bend over and 
root at the tip as the black raspberry does, but that 
new stalks spring up at intervals from the root under- 



234 LESSOiXS IN AGRICULTUKE 

ground. The red raspberry thus spreads rapidly and if 
left to itself will spend its energy in growing canes 
rather than producing berries. This can be prevented 
by cutting off all the new shoots but two or three for 
the next year's growth. 

Make a notebook record of all these observations, and 
write a paragraph describing the difference between the 
methods of propagation of the black and red raspberries. 

LESSON LXIX 

SCHOOL GARDENING 

Awakened interest in school gardens. — It may be of 

interest to the ])oys and girls who read this lesson to 
learn something about the value, the development, and 
the nature of school garden work in this country. It 
has been a common practice in several European coun- 
tries for fully a century to conduct gardens in con- 
nection with the work of the public schools, and the idea 
of making gardening a part of the school work is rapidly 
growing in favor in our own country. 

In gardening, two practical lessons in agriculture arc 
taught first hand : first, the thorough preparation of the 
seed bed; and, second, the results of good cultivation 
in providing the surface mulch and in killing the weeds. 

Essentials of gardening. — The ground for the garden 
should be of a warm, rich, sandy loam, and be well 
under-drained. In preparing the ground for planting, 
great care and patience should be exercised in enriching 
it and thoroughly pulverizing the top soil. The seeds 



SCHOOL GAKDENING 



235 



should be pure and healthy, and not planted too deep, 
and the surface of the soil should not be allowed to 
become too dry while the seeds are germinating. These 
are fundamental requirements in all gardening. 

Practical Exercises 

1. Selecting and Preparing the Garden 

The size and shape of the school garden will, of course, 

depend upon the amount of land available. The school 

garden should not encroach upon the playgrounds. If 

the school lot is too small, perhaps a farmer whose land 




Fig. 69. School Garden 

adjoins would be willing to give or rent a plot for 
school garden purposes. If the teacher and pupils are 
willing to have a school garden, there need be no trouble 
to find land enough for it. If the school is in session 
this month, a school garden should by all means be 
begun. 

If it is not feasible to have a large garden with in- 
dividual or group plots, select a corner of the school 



236 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 

grounds, on which to make a sample garden plot, as a 
demonstration lesson from which the pupils may learn 
how to make similar garden plots at home. Select a 
space with rich soil, about four feet wide by sixteen 
feet long, and thoroughly clean away all weeds and 
trash from this plot. 

Spade up the ground as deeply as possible. About 
a pound of commercial fertilizer may now be sprinkled 
over the plot, or a few shovelfuls of well-rotted manure 
may be worked into the ground. Rake over the plot 
and break up all the clods. It is a good plan to go over 
the ground with the hands, crumbling the soil as fine as 
meal. Level the bed up slightly higher than the rest 
of the ground. Stake the four corners and mark off a 
sharp, clean-cut edge for the bed, and make a neat, clean 
path around it. 

The garden is now ready for planting. 
2. Planting the School Garden 

In plenty of time before this lesson is given the teacher 
should take a penny collection from the pupils, and send 
to the Home Gardening Association, Cleveland, Ohio, 
for seed packages. Many of the seeds may easily be 
obtained at the homes of the pupils. Under the direc- 
tion of the teacher, the garden plot prepared in the pre- 
vious exercise should be marked off for planting. The 
accompanying diagram should be drawn on stiff card- 
boards by each pupil, before going to the garden for 
this exercise. 

The plot, which is four feet wide, should be cross- 
furrowed, according to the scale shown above. Make 



SCHOOL GARDENING 



237 



the furrows about two inches deep. Place the seeds in 
the furrows, as shown by the stars in the diagram. Cover 
with the soil according to the size of the seeds, and 
press it down firmly with the hands. Now we are ready 
for the seeds to grow. Each pupil should now make 



* t * * 

* c * * 



• *«•***** 






»«•*»••**** 



Sweet corn, three rows. 



(Three grains in each place.) 
Dwarf bunch beans, two rows. 



Potatoes, three hills. 
Cucumbers, three hills. 
Optional. 

Optional. 
Optional. 
Beets, three rows. 

Dwarf peas, two rows. 
Onion sets, two rows. 
Radishes, three rows. 
Lettuce, three rows. 
Flower seeds. 



Fig. 70. Garden Plot. One-Fourth Inch Equals One Foot 

a garden plot similar to this one, at his home, and re- 
port daily to the class the progress of his garden. As 
the garden grows, weeds must be pulled, insects watched 
for, and replanting done, if necessary. 



238 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



The following table should be copied in the notebooks 
and filled out in connection with the exercises of this 
lesson : 



Plants I When 
Planted 



How Deep 



Distance I When 
Apart I Appear 

I 



Injuries 



Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 
Farmers ' Bulletins. 

No. 218.— The School Garden. 
Extracts. 

No. 113. — Experimental Gardens and Grounds. 



LESSON LXX 
HOME GARDENING 

Importance of the garden. — What has been said 
about school gardens will, much of it, apply to the home 
garden. Every family in the country should have a 
garden because of the profit and satisfaction which it 
affords. The garden is, or should be, the best part of 
the farm, but it is often neglected by the farmer for 
other work which he thinks more important. Every 
dweller in town or city could very materially lessen 
the cost of living as well as promote the health of the 
family, by having a home garden. By the use of flow- 
ers and shrubs in the proper relation to the vegetable 
garden, the whole garden may add much to the beauty 
of the home grounds. 



HOME GARDENING 239 

Some essentials of gardening. — 1. The soil of the 
garden should be a warm, well-drained, sand loam. It 
should be well fertilized with barn manure. 

2. The ground should be plowed deeply and well, 
so that all litter and manure will be turned under. The 
ground should be harrowed and raked until the top soil 
is fine. All sticks and trash should be removed. 




Fig. 71. Type of Home Garden 

3. Seeds should be pure, fresh and viable. Small 
seeds should be covered only slightly with finely pul- 
verized soil. Larger seeds should be planted deeper. 
Full directions are usually given on seed packages. 

4. Seeds should be planted on a level in rows far 
enough apart to allow for easy cultivation, and not up 



240 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

on elevated beds to dry out more easily during the hot 
summer days. 

5. The time of planting will depend upon the nature 
of the vegetable. Onions, peas, radishes, lettuce, and 
potatoes may be planted as early as the ground can 
be worked. Flower seeds, beans, cabbage, melons, to- 
matoes, etc., should be planted later when the ground is 
thoroughly warmed. 

6. In transplanting tomatoes, cabbages, etc., care 
should be taken that the plants are set deep and are 
well shaded for a while from the direct sun light. On 
cloudy days or towards evening is the best time to do 
transplanting. 

7. Seed beds should not be allowed to dry out on 
the surface during germination. After the plants have 
come through the ground, the soil should be frequently 
stirred, to provide the surface mulch, and to keep down 
the weeds. The plants should be thinned out where 
they are overcrowding each other. 

8. All vegetables should be carefully watched as they 
begin to develop leaves, to protect them from the bugs. 
Professor Hatch recommends the use of Hammond's 
"Slug Shot," sprinkled dry on such vegetables as mel- 
ons, cucuhibers, cabbages, etc., to kill the insect pests 
appearing on these plants. The spray to use on po- 
tatoes will be described in a later lesson. 

Practical Exercises 

1. To Grow Early Melons or Cucumbers 

Cut several turfs of sod, about six inches square, as 

many pieces as you mean to have hills of melon. If 

the grassy side is firmly matted, slightly loosen the 

fibers, but not enough to allow the turf to fall apart. 



HOME GAEDENING 241 

Place the sod, bottom side up, in a shallow box of wood 
or pasteboard; if the earth is not thick enough, add 
a few handfuls of good mealy soil. Plant about six 
or eight seeds in this soil. Place in a sunny window 
and keep warm and moist. 

This will constitute the first part of the lesson, but 
the germinating seeds will keep up the interest in the 
experiment for many days. When the green seed leaves 
have freed themselves from the shell, notice which are 
the thriftiest plants, and remove all but the best two. 
Care for these tenderly, and they will thrive well, free 
from frost and the striped beetle. They may safely 
acquire three or four true leaves, and be five or six 
inches tall, before they are planted out of doors. 

When the warm late IMay days come, dig holes about 
eight inches deep and six feet apart in the sunniest 
part of the garden ; put in the bottom of each hole a 
spadeful of old well-rotted manure; cover this with 
two inches of sand or fine soil; and on this place the 
sod with the growing melons, so gently that they will 
not know they have been moved. The sod should be 
level with the ground, and well firmed in place. See 
that the plants never suffer from thirst. Keep the 
weeds pulled, and stir the surface soil about the hill 
often until the vines begin to run. 

When each vine has set about a half dozen melons, 
pinch off all blossoms that form, and also the tips of 
the branches, so that all plant food may go into the 
melons first chosen. 



242 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

2. Growing Cucumbers Intensively 

Select a fertile spot and dig a hole in the ground 
large enough to sink a barrel midway. Knock the 
bottom out of the barrel, and set it in the hole in the 
ground. Fill the earth in about the outside of the bar- 
rel, and mound the soil up to the rim of the barrel 
on the outside. Now fill the barrel with manure, packed 
firmly, and keep it covered to prevent the house flies 
from breeding in it. 

The bed is ready for planting. Plant five or six 
hills of cucumber seeds in the mound heaped up about 
the outside of the barrel. Put about ten seeds in a 
hill, and when the plants get large enough to vine, re- 
move half of them. 

Pour several pails of water into the barrel of ma- 
nure each day, and the water leaching through the 
manure will furnish the best of fertilizer for the plants, 
and the necessary moisture for their thrifty growth. 
These few hills will furnish an abundance of cucum- 
bers, and upon a very small space of ground. 
3. Cultural Requirements for Vegetables 

Learn to fill out the following table from memory „ 
when the column of vegetables is given; 



HOME GAEDENING 



243 



The Vegetable. 



2. Beet. 

3. Turnip. 

4. Potato. 

5. Sweet 
potato. 

C. Onion. 

7. Cabbage. 

8. Spinach. 

9. Lettuce. 

10. Celery. 

11. Pea. 

12. Bean. 

13. Tomato. 



14. Cucumbers, 
Melons, etc. 



15. Asparagus. 



Soil 
Requirement. 



Loose, deep 
cool, rich soil 



Sandy loam 
soil, loose 
and rich. 

Cool moist soil. 



Deeply Pulver- 
ized, cool 
soil, rich in 
potash. 

Loose, warm 
soil, sandy 
loam. 

Moist rich soil 
with loose 
surface. 

Cool deep soil. 



Cool moist soil. 



Mellow, moist 
soil. 

Cool, rich, 
moist soil, 
well pre- 
pared. 

Light soil. 



Light, sandy 
loam. 



Rich. "quick" 
soil. 



Loose, rich, 
well prepar- 
ed seedbed. 



Deep, rich, 
moist, cool 
soil. Ferti- 
lize often. 



Season 
Requirement. 



Short season 
crop. 



Full season. 



Short season. 



Early planting, 
full season. 



Long season. 
Sunny. 



Cool season. 
Early and 
late. 

Full season. 



Spring and Fall 
crop. 

Short season. 
Full season. 

Short season. 



Warm season, 
partial. 



Long, warm 
season. 



Long, warm 
season. 



Full season. 
Perennial. 



Care 
Requirements. 



Clean cultiva- 
tion. Protect 
from maggot. 

Good tillage. 
Weeds kept 
down. 

No care after 
sowing. 

Level culture, 
frequent til- 
lage, spray 
against beetles. 

Clean tillage, 
wood ashes 
fertilizer. 

Good surface 
tilth. Good 
seed needed. 

Frequent till- 
age. Destroy 
the worm. 

Grow in drills. 



Good soil prep- 
aration. 

The best sur- 
face tillage, 
blanching. 



Grown in drills. 
Easy culture. 

Clean tilth. 
Poles for tall 
varieties. 

Hill planting. 
Careful prun- 
ing and frame 
supports. 

Frequent till- 
age until vines 
run. Combat 
melon beetles. 

Cut in fall and 
top dress 
with manure. 
Caase cutting 
in early sum- 
mer. 



244 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 
No. 94. — The Vegetable Garden. 

No. 1-54. — The Home Fruit Garden: Preparation and Care. 
No. 156. — The Home Vineyard, with Special Reference to 
Northern Conditions. 

No. 198. — Strawberries. 
No. 213. — Raspberries. 

LESSON LXXI 

BEAUTIFYING HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 

During this month we shall plant trees, shrubs, and 
other ornamental plants about our home grounds. Ear- 
lier in the season, and in plenty of time for planting, 
we should have ordered our stock from some reliable 
house, and when the plants arrive, we should plant 
them at once. Our home grounds on the farm, as 
shown in Lesson I, contain about two acres. See prac- 
tical exercises and problems for further plans. 

Beautiful home grounds. — It does not require wealth 
nor rare plants to beautify the home or school grounds. 
With little expense, good taste, a knowledge of the 
above principles, and a willingness to work, the homes 
and schools of our country could be made more at- 
tractive and more natural. The woods are full of wild 
shrubs and flowers that could be growing on our home 
and school grounds, if we would only transplant them 
there. On Arbor day every school should revive the in- 
terest of the community in tree planting and other 
means of beautifying the home grounds. Back yards 
with barren ground covered with old tin cans and broken 
down chicken coops are not the surroundings in which 
boys and girls can grow up into beautiful and useful 



BEAUTIFYING GEOUNDS 



345 



characters. Our minds are influenced by what we con- 
tinually look upon, and if we must look upon ugly land- 
scapes, we tend to grow sordid and ugly in spirit; on 
the other hand, if we grow up in a home and school 
surrounded by beautiful natural scenes, our lives must 
grow more refined and appreciative. 




FIG. 



BEAUTIFi:!. Hume <iUUUiNDS 



Principles of landscape gardening-. — 1. Provide an 
open unbroken greensward in front of the house. There 
is nothing more ornamental than a wealth of green 
grass. It furnishes the canvas upon which the land- 
scape gardener draws his picture. It should not be 
daubed up with circular flower beds or other artificial 
things. 



246 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

2. Plant trees and shrubs in masses at the back- 
ground, against buildings, or on the borders of the 
lawn. Aim to hide by the trees and shrubs all objec 
tionable views and to open up pleasing vistas. 

3. Plant flowers at the borders of shrub masses, 
along the walks and buildings, but not in circular or 
square beds in the open lawn. 

4. Avoid the straight line in tree and shrub plant- 
ing in all natural designs. Group the trees and shrubs, 
and allow them to swing in graceful curves into the 
lawn and about the turns of walks. 

5. Select most of the trees and shrubs from native 
plants that are known to be adapted to the soil and 
climate. 

6. Follow every rule for successful tree planting 
known to the horticulturist. (See next lesson.) 

Setting the Plants. — In preparation for planting trees 
and shrubs the holes should be dug at least four feet 
in diameter and two feet deep. If the soil is hard 
and poor, it should be replaced by good earth, and 
the tree should be mulched with coarse litter, after 
the earth has been firmed well about the roots of the 
tree. Do not use water in planting unless the soil is 
very dry. The cut ends of all roots should be smooth- 
ly re-cut before planting. Probably one-half of the 
top should be pruned from the tree or shrub in order 
to give balance to the roots. 

Plants suggested for home and school grounds. — 
I. List of annual flowers: Seed to be sown after the 
danger of frost is over. The best results are obtained 



BEAUTIFYING GEOUNDS 



247 



if the plants are started in the house in April and set 
out after the tenth of May. Aster, Cockscomb, Cosmos, 
Dahlia, Mignonette, Myosotis, and Salvia. 

2. Annuals : Seeds to be sown early. April or early 
May. Ageratum, Alyssum, Amaranth, Candytuft, Car- 
nation, Chrysanthemum, Dianthus, Larkspur, Mari- 




FiG. 73. Suggestions for a Farmyard (Prof. Waugh) 

gold, Nasturtium, Petunia, Phlox, Poppy, Sweet Pea, 
Verbena, and Zinnia. 

3. List of popular perennials: Plants to be grown 
the previous summer. Columbine, Campanula, Canna, 
Hollyhock, Poppy (hardy), Rudbeckia, Sunflower, Sweet 
William, Delphinium, and all hardy pinks. 

4. List of shrubs for borders: Flowering Almond, 
Dwarf Cornus, Elder, Forsythia, Bush Honeysuckle, 



248 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 

Hydrangea, Japan Quince, Lilac in variety. Privet, 
Roses in variety, Snowball, Spirea, Sumac, Weigelia, 
Deutsia, Norway Spruce, and other evergreens. 

5. List of trees for home and school grounds: Su- 
gar Maple, Norway Maple, Box Elder, White Elm, Sil- 
ver Maple, White Birch, Catalpa bungei. Tulip tree, 
Mulberry, White Oak, etc. 

6. In planting trees about our homes and schools, 
we should not forget to plant a few such as the Service- 
berry, Hackberry, Wild Cherry, etc., which furnish 
food for the song birds and attract them to our homes 
to add their life and cheer to the natural surroundings. 

Practical Exercises 
1. Planting Besifin for the School Grounds. 
Measure the school grounds, and draw a map to a 
scale, locating all buildings, trees, and shrubs. Indicate 
in the drawing the plantings you would add to the 
grounds. (See diagram in the figure for suggestions.) 
2. Phmting Design for Home Grounds. 
Draw a map of your home grounds, showing all build- 
ings, trees, shrubs, and flower plots. Criticize the plan 
of the planting and suggest improvements. Make a 
list of all the trees, shrubs, and flowers that grow on 
your home grounds. 

3. Beautifying the School Grounds. 
Have a "cleaning up" week, during which the school 
yard is cleared of all trash and ugly objects. Carry 
this movement to the homes and enter into competition 
on beautifying home grounds. This work could be done 
in preparation for Arbor Day, and the planting of 



FARM FORESTRY 249 

flowers, shrubs, and trees would be a fitting climax to 

the whole work. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Department of Agriculture 
Farmers' Bulletins 

No. 134. — Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. 
No. 185. — Beautifying the Home Grounds. 

Extracts 

No. 91. — Lawns and Lawn Making. 

Problems 

1. Draw a plan of the home grounds on the farm 
as shown in Lesson I, design the planting of trees, 
shrubs, and hedges, and estimate the cost of such plants 
as listed in the IMoon Co. catalogue, Morrisville, Pa. 
Keep a record of the cost. 

2. Estimate the cost of planting the school yard as 
you have designed it in the exercise above. 



LESSON LXXII 

FARM FORESTRY 

This month we shall plow up an acre of our old farm 
wood lot, where the trees have all been cut away, and 
plant it in catalpa trees. The practical exercises given 
at the end of the lesson's discussion will explain the 
method of planting. 

Importance of forests. — No other resource of the 
earth, except the soil, is of more importance to man 
than the forests. The fact is there would hardly be 
any soil at all if it had not been for the forests. The 
forests are our chief source of building material and 
fuel. They protect and hold the soil and water of the 



250 



LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 



earth. Their presence makes our land more attractive 
and healthful. 

Forests necessary for civilization. — Our civilization 
is built on wood. From the cradle to the coffin, in 
some shape or other, wood surrounds us as a necessity 
or luxury. Wood enters into the construction of nearly 
all our houses. It serves to ornament them, to furnish 



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Fig. 74. Wood Lot and Ranger's Cabin 

them, and to heat them. The forests furnish the plow 
handles and the harrow frames to cultivate our crops, 
the thrashing machines and mills to prepare them, the 
cart to bring them to market, the bottoms in which 
they cross the ocean, and the tar and pitch to keep 



FARM FORESTRY 251 

the cargo safe. We are rocked in wooden cradles, play 
with wooden toys, sit in wooden chairs and benches, 
eat from wooden tables, use wooden desks, chests and 
trunks, are entertained by music from wooden instru- 
ments, and learn by information printed on wooden 
paper with black ink made from wood. 

Forest influences. — Besides serving the great purpose 
as the source of our needed supplies, the forests exer- 
cise a great influence upon the earth and its inhabit- 
ants. Forests are often the source of streams, and 
here the rains and snows are allowed to sink slowly 
and deeply into the soil, through the leaves, roots, and 
mould, to run gradually into the streams through 
springs and underground levels, preventing excessive 
floods, and extremes of drought. The forests break the 
force of winds and temper the climate. In short, the 
ft^rest is one of man's greatest blessings, and yet it is 
the one which he has abused with the most reckless- 
ness and ignorance. In no part of the world has this 
reckless waste been greater than in the United States. 

The use of the forests. — It was not intended that the 
forests be hoarded up as a miser hoards his gold ; 
they are to be used. But it is possible to use the for- 
ests so wisely that they may last as long as the earth 
stands. The destructive cutting by lumbermen, and 
the prevalence of forest fires have been the causes of 
waste in our great forest resources. Ex-President 
Roosevelt said that forestry is the art of saving the 
forests by a wise use of what they afford. Forestry 
teaches men how to keep the forests alive by cutting 



252 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

out only the trees that have got their growth, in such 
a way as not to injure or destroy the younger growth 
remaining. Young trees are given light, air, and room 
to grow. The forest floor of rich leaf-mould is pre- 
served as a means of enriching the soil and holding the 
moisture. 

The control of the forest. — Forestry also teaches the 
best way of replanting or "reforesting" areas in which 
the timber has already been destroyed. The respon- 
sibility for wisely caring for our forests may be laid 
upon three or four agencies — the United States Govern- 
ment or the state governments, the large private tim- 
ber owners, and the American farmer. The Forest 
Service of the United States is doing a great and valu- 
able service to the people in its wise management 
of millions of acres of forest reserves in the Western 
States; the large lumbermen of the country are doing 
little to save or use the forests wisely ; it is to the 
American farmer we must turn with high hopes that 
he may realize that he is the most important trustee 
of the nation's wealth of forest resources. 

The farmers' woodlot. — Every farmer who has a 
woodlot, and every farmer ought to have one, may prac- 
tice the principles of forestry, and thus use his timber 
wisely. When our country was new, land had to be 
cleared to make room for the crops. Great trees were 
cut down and rolled into heaps to be burned. Wood 
was worth little except for fuel. Now all is changed. 
The price of wood is liigh, and is rising higher every 
year. The farmer who has a woodlot on his land has 



FARM FOEESTRT 253 

a valuable piece of property, and although it may not 
bring him much in turn in the way of money, it is almost 
a necessity for successful farming. The up-to-date farmer 
now values and cares for his woodlot. The follow- 
ing are* some points to observe in caring for a woodlot : 

1. Give all desirable young trees every advantage 
for growth, and cut out all undesirable ones for fuel 
or such use as the farmer can make of them. 

2. It is injurious to a woodlot to use it as a pas- 
ture. The stock will browse on the young trees, tramp 
them down, and cut up the soil and forest tree roots. 

3. Grass should never be allowed to get started in 
the woodlot. 

4. Old and dead trees should be cut down and re- 
moved. All brush and old logs should be piled and 
burned, where fire cannot injure the young trees. 

5. Where bare spots occur young trees should be 
encouraged to grow, either by planting seeds or seed- 
lings. 

6. It may be well to plow up sections of the old 
woodlot and plant seedlings of such trees as Black Lo- 
cust, Catalpa, or Osage Orange. There are a few farm- 
ers in this country that have made the woodlot a prof- 
itable proposition, and have even gone so far as to set 
high priced corn lands to young forest trees. 

Practical Exercises 
1. Transplanting a Tree 
Select a young tree to be transplanted. Locate the 
main roots by striking the spade into the ground par- 
allel to the direction of the roots. Dig out from the 



254 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

tree as far as the roots extend, avoid cutting off too 

much of the main root system, and secure as many 

roots as possible in a ball of earth to be removed with 

them. ■ If the tree is to be carried any distance, wrap 

tlie roots with a wet cloth or carpet. The roots must 

not be allowed to dry out before transplanting. 

Dig the hole into which the tree is to be set, a little 

deeper than the one from which it came. Allow ample 

room for all roots. Before placing the tree, trim off 

neatly all injured and broken roots. Place some fine 

surface soil in the bottom of the hole, and with the 

hands work fine soil about the small roots. Fill the 

earth about the roots carefully, and tramp it down ivell. 

It is not best to use water in transplanting unless the 

soil is very dry, and then only a small amount. Round 

up the surface of the ground so that no water can stand 

next to the tree, and cover with a loose, fine mulch of 

earth. The inverted sod may be placed on top. Now 

the tree must be trimmed back so that the disturbed 

balance between root and top may be restored. 

"Who does his duty 

Is a question too complex for me ; 

But he, I venture the suggestion, 

Does part of his who plants a tree. ' ' — Lowell. 

S. Planting a Woodlot 
Send to Ohio Valley Nursery Co., Lake, Ind., or to 
The Little Tree Farm Nurseries, Farmingham, Mass., 
for 1,000 seedlings of Catalpa Speciosa, will cost 
about $5. Select an acre of ground, plow it and pre- 
pare it as for a corn crop. Lay off the ground in fur- 
rows, six feet apart. Cross furrow these at right an- 



FAKM FORESTRY 



255 




FIRST 

Dig a hole plenty large and 
deep. Do not be afraid to bend 
the back. Leave some pulverized 
earth in the bottom of the hole. 



THIRD 

After the roots are carefully 
covered then press the earth down 
solid as the hole is filled. Then 
the wind as it moves the tree will 
not disturb the roots. 



SECOND 

"There gently lay the roots, and 

there 
Sift the dark mould with kindly 

care. 
As, round the sleeping infant's 

feet, 
We softly fold the cradle sheet." 



FOURTH 

Leave loose earth on top so 
moisture may soali in. Let the 
children plant nasturtium seed 
and thus cultivate the ground. 



256 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

gles, the same distance apart. Plant the Catalpa seed- 
lings at the intersection of the furrows. These little 
trees will be six feet apart and there will be about 
1,000 trees on the acre. The trees must be cultivated 
three or four times during May and June. In July 
sow to cowpeas, vetch, or clover to serve as a winter 
cover crop. Keep up this system of cultivation and 
cover cropping for three or four seasons, or until the 
trees shade the entire ground beneath them. They will 
probably need some pruning to keep the stems straight 
and from forking too badly. If the wind blows any 
trees over or they persist in growing crooked, cut the 
trees off at the ground and new, strong, straight trees 
will grow from the roots. 

For a school exercise any smaller area planted in this 
manner will serve. The author strongly recommends 
the use of this exercise in the rural schools. 

D^aw a plot of the ground and show the position of 
the trees. 

Note. — Black Locust, White Willow, Osage Orange, 
and Yellow Poplar are good woodlot trees to plant and 
they yield quick returns. 

3. An Excursion t-. the Woods 

Let the class and teacher take a walk to the woods. 
Make notes of your observations on the following points : 

1. The comparative temperature within and without 
the woods. 

2. The rich humus soil of the forest floor, and how 
the roots and leaf mould hold the moisture and pre- 
vent washing. Point out examples of washes where 



FARM FOEESTRY 



257 



the forest has been cut away, and explain how the soil 
is carried to the streams, and its effects upon them. 

3. Find trees of virgin growth and also the second 
growth. Note any dangerous firetraps. 

4. If a freshly cut stump or log can be found, 












Fig. 76. Catalp.v Grove Three Years Old 

count the rings of growth and determine the age of the 
tree. 

5. Make a few estimations of the diameter and 
heights of the largest trees. Pupils might calculate the 
number of cubic feet of timber in a large tree, and by 
S({uaring the diameter in inches, minus four, it becomes 
board measure in a sixteen-foot log. 



258 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

6. Make a list in the notebook of the names of all 
the trees yoii can. 

7. Point out the ironwood, blue-beech, hazel, serul) 
oaks, and other useless "tree weeds" that should be re- 
moved in improvement cuttings. 

By referring to Roth's First Book of Forestry, or 
to Pinchot's Primer of Forestry, many valuable lessons 
may be continued in this work. 

Problems 

1. At $6 per cord, what is the value of a pile of 
wood 240 feet long, six feet high and four feet wide? 

2. A farmer gets six cords of wood from ten trees. 
With wood at $5.50 per cord, what is the value of these 
trees? 

3. What is the value of a single tree at the same 
rate? 

4. Suppose there are fifty such trees on an acre, 
what is the value of the wood on this piece of land? 

5. What is the value of a woodlot of fifteen acres 
at the same rate? 

6. Suppose a farmer removes the five biggest trees 
per acre from his woodlot each year. If each tree makes 
three-fourths of a cord of wood, worth $6 per cord, and 
it costs 80 cents per cord for cutting, what profit does 
he make per acre on his woodlot? 

7. Compare this with the profit on an acre of oats. 

8. Compare it with the profit on an acre of corn. 

9. What will the profit on a twelve-acre woodlot 
be at the same rate? 



SPEAYING FOR DISEASES 259 

10. If a Catalpa wood-lot contains 1,000 ten-year-old 
trees per acre, and each tree would make two fence 
posts, what would the trees on five acres be worth at 
30c a post ? 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 
Farmers' Bulletins 

No. 54.— Some Common Birds in Their Eelation to Agricul- 
ture. 

No. 150. — Clearing New Land. 
No. 173. — A Primer of Forestry. 



LESSON LXXIII 

SPRAYING FOR CODLING MOTH AND FUNGOUS 
DISEASES 

Time to spray. — It is late in April and the apple 
blossoms have just fallen from the trees. We know now 
that the codling moth larva or "apple worm" will soon 
be eating its way into the blossom end of the apples, 
and we know, too, that unless we do something to check 
its ravages, our fruit will fall or be wormy and worth- 
less. Fortunately we do not have to give up to the cod- 
ling moth, for we may spray our trees, kill the moth, 
and save the apples. 

Lime-sulphur and lead arsenate. — If any farmer in 
the neighborhood has a spray pump, he no doubt would 
be willing to loan it to the school for this lesson. The 
school should own some good spray pump, such as the 
Gould's Pomona, and use it for demonstration purposes 
in the orchards of the district. The spray material usu- 
ally used is the combined lime-sulphur mixture and lead 
arsenate. The lime-sulphur checks the spreads of such 



260 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



diseases as apple scab, "frog eye" fungus, brown rots, 
etc., and the lead arsenate kills the "apple worm,'" 
leaf-eating caterpillars, and other chewing insects. 
Ready prepared lime-sulphur solutions may be pur- 
chased from reliable firms for between 10 and 20 cents 
a gallon, and a gallon and one-half diluted to about 




Fig. 77. Spraying a Fruit Tree 

fifty gallons with water, will spray about ten average 
sized bearing apple trees. To this mixture should be 
added about three pounds of lead arsenate, to be used 
against the codling moth. (See Lesson 12 for making 
of Bordeaux Mixture.) 



SPRAYING FOR DISEASES 



361 



Practical Exercises 

1. Preparing and Using the Lime-sulphur Lead-arsenate Mixture 
If one wishes to prepare his own material, see Lesson 

64. The stock solution is diluted and used as described 

above. 

Force the spray thoroughly and completely onto 




Courtesy of li. F. Johnson Pub. Co. 
Fig. 78. The Codling Moth 

every leaf, twig, stem, and fruit of the tree. When 
the codling moth larva hatches from the eggs which 
have been laid on the leaves and the apples, and begins 
to crawl toward the apples, it may nibble at some of 
the poisoned leaves, but it is sure to get its last meal 
as it attempts to eat into the blossom end of the fruit. 
If this operation of spraying is repeated in about three 
or four weeks after the blossoms fall, and then in mid- 
summer to combat the second brood, the trees and fruit 



262 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

will be saved from the moth and from the fungous dis- 
eases, and the apple trees may yield a hundredfold. 

Applications to the State Experiment Station should 
be made for the latest spray calendars. 

This exercise should by all means be carried out in 
the public schooJs. 

Reference: Farmers' Bulletin, No. 243. 




Voin-lvs!/ of I! J /nlni^iiii I'nh.Co. 
Fig. 79. Apples Fitoii Spkaved and Uxspka\eu Bkanches 

Problems 

1. Our farm orchard contains four acres of apple 
trees. How much will it cost to spray the orchard 
with the lime-sulphur and lead arsenate? Lime-sul- 
phur at 20 cents a gallon, and lead arsenate at 15 cents 
a pound. 

2. The Bordeaux-lead-arsenate mixture, ready pre- 
pared will cost $1 per gallon. This will make up fifty 
gallons of spray material. How much could we save 
by making our own mixture, if lime is 1 cent per pound, 
and copper sulphate 10 cents per pound? (See Lesson 
12.) 

3. Which is cheaper, linie-siilphur or Bordeaux? 



PLANTING COEN 



263 



LESSON LXXIV 

PLANTING CORN 

Preparation of seed bed. — Having selected our seed 
corn, and tested it for germination, the next step we 
must take in corn culture is to prepare the soil to re- 
ceive the seed. A rich humus soil, loose, warm, and 
moist, will produce a better crop of corn than any 
other. If the field has been fall-plowed, it should now 




t'ourtttiij u{ Farm and Futmde. 

Fig. 80. Jerry Moore and His 228% Bu. op Corn Raised on One 

Acre 

be double-disked and harrowed in preparation for the 
planting. In many cases corn follows corn, and the 
plowing must be done in the spring. In this case a 
disking before plowing will cut up the stalks and pro- 
vide a fine layer which will fall into the bottom of the 
furrow, and help to restore capillarity. In soils that 
are liable to bake, each day's plowing should be bar- 



264 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 

rowed as soon as possible. A little extra work at this 
time may prevent the formation of clods, and save ten 
times as much trouble in trying to pulverize them later. 
Three or four additional harrowings will usually put 
the ground iato first class shape for planting. In our 
farm plan, as shown in Lesson I, we shall plant field 
number 1 to corn. This has been in clover for two 
years, and by deep plowing, rolling, and through har- 
rowing we shall have a most excellent seed bed for our 
corn. 

Planting the seed. — It is better to check than to drill 
when growing corn for grain, as it can be kept cleaner, 
with a resulting larger yield. For fodder or silage, 
drilled corn gives more tons of dry matter per acre and 
is more easily handled by the corn binder. In some 
of the states west of the Ivlissouri River, where the soil 
is light and rainfall scanty, listing gives the best re- 
sults. 

The number of kernels to use per hill depends upon 
the richness of the soil. On the average corn belt soils 
three kernels per hill will give the best results. Very 
rich soils can support four, while on poor soils two -are 
enough. It pays both in appearance and in ease of cul- 
tivating to drive straight while planting and to have 
the rows cheek straight crosswise. 

Early cultivation. — As many harrowings as possible 
should be given the corn between planting time and the 
time it comes up. If heavy rains have packed the soil 
or if it is badly infested with weeds, it will pay to fol- 
low the planter marks with the cultivator before har- 
rowing. 



PLANTING CORN 265 

Practical Exercises 
1. Entering a Corn Contest 

Write to the Extension Department of your State Col- 
lege of Agriculture and ask to enter the boys' corn con- 
test of the county or state. If a contest is on, and there 
will be one planned in almost every state in the union, 
you will be told where to get your seed corn, and how 
to plant and cultivate it for the corn show and contest. 

If the teacher and pupils wish to work out a corn 
contest of their own, each pupil should be provided 
with one pint of high grade seed corn. Select a strip 
in your father's field, enough to plant two rows 3l^ 
feet apart and 37 1-3 rods long — this will be a tenth 
acre plot. Select and test the seed corn as described 
in former lessons. Prepare the ground as described 
above. Plant the corn in hills, about three kernels to a 
hill, and each hill about four feet apart. Cultivate at 
least once a week (if the ground is dry enough) from 
the time the corn is big enough until it begins to tassel. 
(See Lesson 32.) From your plot you may gather the 
ears which will win the prize. 

Such a contest should be arranged for and carried 
out by the Boys' Club of the school. (See Farmers' 
Bulletin, No. 385.) 

2. Starting the Ear-to-row Plot for Eaising Seed Corn 

Place one hundred of the best ears of corn you can 
find on a table before you. Select from this lot twenty- 
five of the best ears, and number them from one to 
twenty-five. On the test plot of the farm (see Lesson 
I), prepare the ground thoroughly for planting as 



266 LESSOjNS IX AGEICULTUEE 

described above. Lay off twenty-five rows, and number 
each row from 1 to 25. Plant about lialf of ear number 
1 in row number 1. Plant one-half of ear number 2 in 
row number 2, and so on to number 25. Give all the 
rows equal and thorough cultivation. At husking time 
we can judge which row has yielded most, which has 
the best corn in it, and so on for other desired points. 
By saving the seed from the best rows for our ear row 
test next year, we can soon breed up by selection an 
improved strain of corn. 

Problems 

1. How long will it take to plow a ten-acre field in 
preparation for corn planting? How long to harrow 
it? If the work were hired done how much would it 
cost at the usual price of labor? 

2. How much seed corn will be needed to plant the 
ten acres if the corn is drilled? How much if checked 
with a planter? 

3. What will it cost to hire all the labor and to buy 
the seed corn? 

4. If the yield of corn were increased five bushels 

to the acre in your state, how^ much wealth would be 

added to the state by the increase? (See the Year Book 

of 1909.) 

Eeferences: Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 81, 229, 409, 281, and 
385. 



MAY 

On the farm. — May is the month of planting, trans- 
planting, and cultivation. The corn is to be cultivated 
constantly; potatoes, cucumbers, melons, beans, etc., are 
to be planted ; tomatoes, cabbage, sweet potatoes, and 
celery are to be transplanted ; and continual warfare 
against weeds and insects must be waged. 

LESSON LXXV 

CULTIVATION OF COEN 

The proper time to begin the cultivation of corn is 
i)efore it is planted. As was said in the previous lesson, 
the ground should be plowed deeply, the surface har- 
rowed mellow and fine, and the corn planted in hills 
or in drilled rows. 

Methods of cultivation. — As soon as the rows can 
be followed the cultivator should be started. If any 
deep cultivation is to be given it should be the first 
two times over, before the soil is filled with corn roots. 
After the corn is six or eight inches high some form 
of surface cultivator that will not disturb the soil to a 
depth of more than two or three inches should be used. 
In the western part of the corn belt, where the fields 
are large, the two row cultivator is becoming popular. 
If the corn is very straight both ways these cultivators 

267 



268 LESSOxXS IiN AGEiCULT URE 

work well after the first time over and enable one man 
to handle at least half as much more land. 

The cultivator. — The problem of cultivating a corn- 
field several hundred acres in extent, such as is found 
in many of the great corn growing regions of the prairie 
states, has been greatly simplified since the two row 
cultivator came into use. With the perfect working 
corn planters now in the market the row of corn may 
be made so straight that the two row cultivator can be 
used without difficulty. This has brought about a facil- 
ity of cultivation which has added largely to the yield 
in many parts of the country. Before the coming of 
the double row cultivator there w^s danger that much 
of the land of the western portion of the belt would 
become too weedy for corn culture. 

Reasons for cultivation. — Corn is a crop that needs 
constant cultivation, and during the growing season 
should be cultivated at least four times. This cultiva- 
tion is for three reasons: 

1. To destroy weeds that use up the plant food and 
water. 

2. To provide a soil mulch to prevent evaporation. 

3. Because tillage is a fertilizer. Constant stirring 
of the soil allows the air to circulate through it, and 
provides available plant food. 

Corn is king. — Corn is king of the cereals, and the 
most important crop of American agriculture. It is 
the backbone of farming in this country. The white 
man learned the value of this cereal from the Indians, 



CULTIVATION OF COEN 269 

and since then its culture has kept pace with the won- 
derful growth of our country. 

Boys' corn clubs. — The following story, told by one 
of Dr. S. A. Knapp's agents in connection with the 
Boys' Corn Club movement illustrates how the boys 
are learning to follow scientific methods in corn culture : 

"One boy in our club was very anxious to work an 
acre in corn. His father gave him one on condition 
that he dig out the pine stumps and pay all expenses. 
After the boy had gotten out nearly all the stumps in 




Fig. 82. Growth op Corn Roots 

the field, the father took that acre and gave him another, 
upon the same condition. The boy went to work, cleaned 
this new field and plowed it. Then I advised him to 
plow it again. When the boy wanted some fertilizer 
his father refused to permit him to buy till I went se- 
curity and promised to make good all losses, if any. The 
boy's corn was measured this week and made eighty- 
four bushels to the acre. His father's corn, on three 
sides of the boy's, made nine bushels per acre. When 
the corn was weighed and the father's went to the 



270 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 

pigs and the son's sold for seed corn at two dollars 
per bushel, the father changed front." 

References: Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 199, 229, 385, 281, and 
81. 

Practical Exercises 

1. The Stand of Corn 

Select a field of corn near the school and secure the 
owner's permission to visit it. Invite the owner to go 
with you. Let each pupil begin with the iirst hill of 
corn in a row and count to the hundredth hill. If the 
corn has been checked and it was intended that there 
should be three stalks to the hill, there would be in a 
perfect stand 300 stalks. Now count back and find the 
number of stalks in the 100 hills. If there are but 150, 
the stand is 50 per cent. Each pupil should determine 
the percentage of the stand in the row he has counted. 
Each pupil should find out as nearly as possible the 
average stand of corn on the home farm and report 
to the class for the next lesson. It will be interesting 
to parents, and in many cases a surprise to them, to 
find that they have less than a 50 per cent stand when 
they thought it 80 per cent. In all cases discuss the 
reasons for the good or bad stand. It is clear that the 
farmer does not wish to lose his time and labor on va- 
cant hills, when he might just as well have a liberal 
harvest from them. 

S. Corn Boots in Cultivation 

Go to a corn field where cultivation is in progress. 
Examine the soil, the method and depth of cultiva- 
tion. Note the stand, health, and general condition of 
the crop. 



CULTIVATION OF COEN 271 

Carefully remove a few stalks of corn — roots and 
all — and take them to the schoolroom to study as follows : 

Carefully wash the soil from the young roots, and 
spread them out upon a sheet of paper. Get a root 




Fig. 83. Ohio Coen Field in Shock 
from the mature plants and have it before you for 
comparison. 

Note the following points of the corn root, and tabu- 
late your answer below : 

1. Length and number of principal roots. 

2. Amount of branching from any one root. 

3. Direction in which the roots extend from the base 
of the plant. 

4. Amount of cubical space used as feeding ground. 

5. How near the surface do the roots lie? 



272 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

6. Difference between spur roots and the others. 
State reasons. 

7. Can yon find root-eap and root-hairs? 

8. Does your observation lead you to any conclu- 
sions about the cultivation of corn? Explain. 

9. ]\Iake a drawing of the corn root system. 

LESSON LXXVI 

TILLING THE SOIL 

Tillage. — Since May is especially the month of soil 
cultivation, it seems best to study further into the es- 
sentials of tillage. Tillage is next to, if not equal to, 
fertilization of the soil. It includes the preparation, 
the phmting, and the cultivation of the land. 

Value of tillage. — As we have learned, the plant is 
fed by the roots, penetrating into the soil, gathering 
up the dissolved food and passing it on to the phmt. 
If the soil is coarse and lumpy these feeding roots can- 
not get at the food held in the lumps, but must feed 
from their surface. Tillage breaks up these lumps, pul- 
verizes them and allows the roots to get at the food they 
contain. Stirring the soil also allows the water to dis- 
solve the plant food more readily. 

Depth of plowing. — Dee]) plowing in most cases is 
best. It brings to the surface plant foods not reached 
by shallow cultivation, and it pulverizes the soil so 
that roots can enter the ground to a greater depth and 
have more soil to feed from. This is especially true for 
such root crops as lieets, parsnips, etc.. and for tubers 



TILLING SOIL 



373 



like the potato. In fact, deep plowing serves tlie same 
valuable purpose for all plants, not only in giving more 
and better root feeding space, but in catching and hold- 
ing more of the rainfall. We have already learned that 
water exists in the soil both as underground water and 




Pig. 84. Deep Plowing 

as capillary water, and that the water which supplies 
the roots of the plants is the capillary water drawn up 
from the underground water below. Now unless the 
ground is deeply plowed, there is less rainfall caught 
to supply this underground water, and hence less to 
supply by capillarity to the plant roots. 
Surface cultivation. — If the deep plowing catches 



274 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

and holds larger quantities of rainfall than no plowing 
or shallow plowing, it becomes the part of good tillage 
to save as much of this ground water as possible by 
preventing its evaporation from the surface. We know 
that if we cover a vessel of water it keeps the sun from 
drying it up. In the same way a cover spread over the 
soil will check the evaporation of the capillary water. 
The simplest way to get this cover spread over the 
soil is to cultivate it. The layer of cultivated soil dries 
out rapidly, but it keeps the air from getting at the 
moist soil underneath and drying it out, and it also 
breaks the rise of capillary water and prevents its com- 
ing to the surface. The surface cultivation should be 
shallow to prevent injury to the plant roots, and it 
should be frequent to provide the dust mulch. 

Constant cultivation.— When the writer was a boy, 
living in the corn belt of Illinois, it used to seem a 
terrible hardship when the father announced, after just 
finishing the cultivation of a large field of corn, that we 
must now go back to the beginning and go over it all 
again. Fishing and swimming never seemed more in- 
viting to the boy, but the father knew what was best 
for the corn. He knew that constant cultivation was 
the price to pay for a good crop. He paid the price 
and got the reward. 

Summary. — To summarize, we may give four chief 
reasons for tillage: (1) To pulverize the soil, so that 
plant roots can easily penetrate in every direction 
and get at the store of plant food the soil contains. 
(2) To increase the water-holding capacity of the 



TILLING SOIL 275 

soil. (3) To aerate the soil and thus sweeten and 
warm it. (4) To destroy weeds and form a soil mulch 
which will prevent rapid evaporation from the surface. 

Practical Exercises 
1. Field Studies of Tillage 
Go to a field where plowing or cultivation is being 
done. Make notes of your observations as follows: 



Depth of Plowing | Condition of Soil 



Method of | 
Cultivation I Moisture Condition 



Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 

No. 306. — Some Soil Problems for Practical Farmers. 

Problems 

1. How many square feet in one square yard? In 
one acre ? 

2. If soil is cultivated to the depth of four inches, 
how many cubic feet of cultivated soil per acre? How 
many, if cultivated to the depth of six inches? If cul- 
tivated to the depth of eight inches? 

3. How much more plant food is made available with 
cultivation to the depth of eight inches than with a four- 
inch depth of cultivation ? 

4. How many times as much available plant food 
in soil cultivated to the depth of six inches as in soil 
cultivated only four inches deep? 

5. If a man and team can plow one and a half acres 
six inches deep, or two acres four inches deep in a day, 
how much more does it cost per acre to plow land six 



276 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 

inches deep than to plow it only four inches deep ? La- 
bor worth $2.40 per day. 

6. If a man and team can till three acres thoroughly 
in a day, or five acres in a careless manner, how much 
more per acre does a good job cost, labor being worth 
$2.40 per day? 

7. How much more per acre does it cost to both 
plow and till well? How many additional bushels of 
oats worth 36 cents per bushel will it take to pay for 
the additional labor? 

8. How much will be the gain if but forty bushels 
of oats can be raised with shallow plowing and careless 
seeding, and fifty-seven bushels with the extra work? 
How much will these oats be worth at 24 cents per 
bushel? At 30 cents per bushel? At the present price 
of oats? 

9. A certain piece of land yields thirty-five bushels 
of corn per acre. By careful cultivation the farmer is 
able to increase this yield to sixty bushels. With corn 
worth 40 cents per bushel how many additional days' 
labor at $1 per day will the extra yield pay for? 

10. If he spends but twenty days' extra time on his 
twelve-acre field of corn to produce the increase in crop 
shown in problem 9, how much does he get per day for 
his extra time ? 

11. Suppose a farmer is able to double the average 
yield of 160 bushels of potatoes from an acre of land 
by putting fifteen days' extra time on it. What wages 
does he get with potatoes at 25 cents per bushel ? 

12. From answers to the following questions make 



1 



TILLING SOIL 277 

other problems similar to the above. What does labor 
cost per day? How many acres can a man plow per 
day? How many acres can he seed in a day? How 
many acres of corn can he cultivate? Will extra labor 
increase the yield of corn ? etc., etc. 



LESSON LXXVII 

TRANSPLANTING 

Plants transplanted. — Our plants growing in the 
hotbed will be ready to transplant this month. We shall 
transplant tomatoes, cabbage, celery, eggplant, pansies, 
and probably some young trees. 

Principles in transplanting. — If the hotbed has been 
made at the school there will be plenty of material 
available. It is an important and practical lesson to 
learn. The following rules will guide to successful trans- 
planting : 

1. Transplant when the weather is cool and damp, 
preferably in the late afternoon. 

2. Transplant when the plant is young. 

3. Break the roots as little as possible in taking the 
young plant up, and keep them moist and shaded. 

4. It is well to cut off some of the top in transplant- 
ing, in order to restore the balance between the root 
and top, since some of the roots were probably lost in 
transplanting. 

5. The plant should be dipped in water and have 
moist fertile soil packed firmly about the roots. If water 



278 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

is to be used it should be poured about the roots before 
all the soil is added. 

6. The plant should have as large a space as that 
in which it originally grew. The soil should be put 
in first at the bottom of the hole in which the roots 
are to grow, and the subsoil, if any, at the surface. It 
is important to make the soil firm about the roots. 

7. It is sometimes well to shade the young trans- 
plant a few days from the hot sunshine, or to protect 
the roots with a mulch of straw or grass. 

The pupils in agriculture should by all means get 
■ some actual practice in transplanting, if in no other 
way than by going to the school yard and getting wild 
plants to transplant in pots or in out-door plots. 

Practical Exercises 
1. Transplating Garden Vegetables 

If there is a window-box in the school, in which are 
growing seedlings of cabbage, tomato, or other vegetables 
to be transplanted, let each pupil transplant a few of the 
vegetables to the school garden. Be careful to follow 
the principles given in this lesson. If there is no school 
garden, the transplants should be taken home and set 
in the home garden, and reports made in school, from 
time to time, as to the success of the work. 
2. Transplating Wild Flowers 

Let each pupil find some thrifty-growing wild flower 
from the fields or woods, transplant it to some pot of 
good soil and bring to the school room. Explain the 
causes of its success or failure to live and grow. 



POTATOES 379 

In connection with this lesson, each pupil might bring 
some shrub or small tree from home or the woods to 
transplant in the school yard. 

Reference: Farmers' Bulletin, No. 245. 



LESSON LXXVIII 

POTATOES 

On our farm plan in Lesson 1, we have one acre to 
plant in potatoes. We are to learn something in this 
lesson about potato planting, potato culture, and potato 
pests. 

Potato soil. — Light sandy soils, rich in humus, are the 
best soils for potatoes. Heavy clay soils interfere with 
the growth of the potatoes and often make them small. 
Soil for potatoes should be deeply plowed, and laid 
off in rows about three feet apart. The potatoes should 
be planted from four to five inches deep, and about 
eighteen inches apart in the rows. 

Planting potatoes. — There is much difference of 
opinion as to the method of cutting the potatoes for 
planting. Excellent results have been obtained by plant- 
ing the whole potato, a single one in a hill. The usual 
practice recommended is to cut the seed potatoes into 
halves or quarters, at least two eyes to a piece, using 
one or two pieces to a hill. The best potatoes should 
be used for seed and not the small discarded ones. A 
handful of bone meal should be dropped into the bot- 
tom of each hill and covered with an inch of soil before 
placing the seed. 



280 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



Potato culture. — After the potatoes have been 
planted, and before they come up, the surface mulch 
should be provided, and this may be done by light har- 
rowings. Throughout the whole period of cultivation 
the weeds should be kept out, the dust mulch provided, 
and shallow, level cultivation maintained. The old prac- 
tice of ridging the potatoes serves to expose the soil to 




Fig. 85. Spraying Potatoes 



excessive evaporation, and to lessen the quality and 
(quantity of the crop. 

Potato pests. — The Colorado potato beetle is the 
most troublesome potato insect. It can be easily killed 
by spraying with three pounds of arsenate of lead 
mixed with fifty gallons of water, or four ounces of 
Paris green and a pound of lime with the same amount 



POTATOES 281 

of water. Either poison can be added to Bordeaux mix- 
ture which is the remedy for the potato diseases. 
Methods of treating the potato scab will be described in 
the practical exercises. 

Practical Exercises 
1. Treating Seed Potatoes to Prevent Scab 

The day before the lesson is to be given, the teacher 
should ask some pupils to bring about a peck of the 
scabbiest potatoes that can be found. The teacher should 
see that the other materials are provided for the lesson. 

Place the potatoes in a burlap sack. Into a tub or 
barrel pour five gallons of water. To this add about 
one-sixth of a pint of formalin. This can be purchased 
at any drug store at 40 cents a pint. Place the sack of 





Fk; sr, A (JooD Potato A Scabby Totato 

potatoes in the tub of formalin solution. Allow them 
to soak one and one-half hours. 

(Experimental work of this lesson will have to end 
here. If there is a school garden, the work as outlined 
below should be continued at school ; if none the teacher 
should fully explain the rest, and call for volunteer 
pupils to complete the experiment at home and report 
upon i^.) 

Remove the potatoes from the solution, and cut into 
pieces for planting. Cut the potato through the long 



282 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

way, and then divide each half. Do not put the potatoes 
back into the receptacle that has had in it scabby po- 
tatoes. The vessel to be used should be washed with 
the solution in the tub. 

Plant the treated tubers in rows by themselves, and 
mark with stakes the rows so planted. To show the 
comparative results of the treatment, plant the same 
number of scabby potatoes, and give both equal care and 
cultivation throughout the season. 

When the potatoes are ripe, dig the treated and un- 
treated separately. Count the increase in the treated 
potatoes. A careful record of this lesson should be kept, 
including the cost of treatment, the price of potatoes, 
and the total gain from the treatment, due to the in- 
creased value of the yield. 

It would be a good service to the district if pupils 
would bring all their scabby potatoes to the school to be 
treated, before planting. Any helpful co-operation be- 
tween the school and the home is of incalculable value 
to both institutions. 

Reference: Farmers' Bulletin. No. 

Problems 

1. If the average weight of seed potatoes is four 
ounces each," and if they are cut in halves and planted 
in rows three feet apart and eighteen inches apart in 
the row, how many bushels of seed will be required per 
acre? 

2. How many bushels will be needed if whole po- 
tatoes are used? Quarters? Eighths? 

3. Select seven potatoes as nearly the same size and 



TOMATOES 283 

shape as possible, from the same hill or similar hills. 
Cut one potato into four pieces and plant each piece 
in a hill ; this will make four hills. Mark these four 
hills "Plat No. 1." Cut the next two potatoes length- 
wise into halves; plant each half in a hill and mark 
these four "Plat No. 2." Plant the remaining four 
potatoes whole, each one in a hill, and mark these "Plat 
No. 3." Give the same care and cultivation to each plant 
and, when they have matured, dig all the potatoes care- 
fully and weigh the yield from each plat and tabulate 
as follows: 





1 
Amount of Seed 
Planted 


No. Pounds of 
Yield 


Net Profit 


Plat No. 1 








Plat No. 2 


8 oz 






Plat No. 3 


16 oz 















4. See problems for Lesson 12. 

LESSON LXXTX 

TOMATOES 

Growing popularity of tomatoes. — The tomato is one 
of our most popular vegetables. It is widely grown 
as a market crop, and is used for canning to a greater 
extent than any other vegetable. The demand for 
fresh fruit the year round, especially in large cities, 
has made the tomato a profitable forcing-house crop, 
and many experiments by the stations to determine 



284 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



best varieties, methods of culture, etc., have been re- 
ported. 

Girls' tomato growing and canning clubs. — Aiken 
County, South Carolina, through the leadership of Miss 
Samuella Cromer, started the first Girls' Tomato Club 




oii.L./ iu.uATO Club 

in this country. This movement is only a little over 
a year old and already there are over four thousand 
members of the clubs. South Carolina, North Carolina, 
Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee, Mississippi, and 
Georgia have Girls' Tomato Clubs. 

The clubs are carried on in this manner: Any girl 
between the ages of nine and twenty years, in the 



TOMATOES 385 

county organized may become a member. She must 
plant one-tenth of an acre in tomatoes, and do all of the 
work connected with her garden, except preparing the 
soil for her plants. Prizes are offered for the largest 
yield, the best display in glass jars, best essay on her 
garden work, largest and most perfect tomato, neatest 
and best collection of tomato recipes, etc. Canning 
parties are held at the homes of the girls, and the 
whole work becomes an inspiration to the entire com- 
munity. 

Some requirements in tomato culture. — A clay soil is 
preferred by some varieties of tomatoes, and a sandy 
soil by others. Deep preparation and plenty of ma- 
nure will make good tomatoes on almost any kind of 
soil. Too much manure on light soil, however, may 
cause the plant to run to vine. Sow the seed in the hot- 
beds about the end of IMarch, and transplant the plants 
into small pots when about two inches high. They 
should not be set out until the temperature is likely to 
stay above 60° F. All the rules of transplanting men- 
tioned in Lesson 77 should be observed. Set the plants 
three feet apart in rows three and one-half feet apart. 
Thorough cultivation, loosening the soil and killing the 
weeds, is necessary until the plants begin to spread and 
cover the ground. The soil should then be drawn up 
to the plants in hills two or three inches high. A 
strawy mulch over the ground, or some support, as a 
trellis, is necessary to keep the fruit off the ground. 

The fruit will begin to ripen in August and should 
be picked as fast as ripe. The plant will usually con- 



286 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

tiniie bearing until frost, and if full-sized green to- 
matoes are picked and placed on the cellar floor, they 
will usually ripen. p]arliana, Eclipse, Acme, Ponderosa, 
Yellow Prince, and Best of All, are good varieties. 

Practical Exercises 

1 Experimenting in Tomato Culture 
Procure enough tomato plants from the hot-bed or 
from any source available to set out a plot on the home 
grounds, two rods by one rod. Transplant and culti- 
vate as directed above. When the vines begin to branch 
and blossom, divide your plot into three sections and 
treat each section as follows : 

1. Mulch the ground about the plants with straw 
and allow them to fall without support. 

2. Support the plants with some sort of trellis to 
which they are tied, and prune away most of the lower 
and side branches. 

3. Allow the plants to fall unpruned and unsup- 
ported on the bare ground. 

Pick the ripened tomatoes from each section all sum- 
mer and keep a record of the quantity and quality of 
the yield from each. Report this experiment and tfie 
results to the school next autumn. 

2. Organising Girls' Tomato Clubs 

Write to the Department of Agriculture at Wash- 
ington, D. C, or to the State Agricultural College for 
plans and details for the organization of a Tomato 
Growing and Canning Club. Ask your teacher to help 
organize a Tomato Club in the school. 



PLANT LEAVES 



28? 



LESSON LXXX 

PLANT LEAVES 
Work of leaves. — The main object to be brought out 
in the study of this lesson is the great work that leaves 
have to do, and the important relations they sustain to 
the life of the plant. 

1. Leaves spread out a great surface through which 
the plant takes in oxygen, necessary for its life and 
growth. 

2. Through this expanded leaf-surface the carbon- 
dioxide gas of the air enters, and in the sunlight the 
green leaf makes plant food out of the carbon-dioxide 
and the minerals brought up in solution from the soil. 
As one result of this process in the leaf, oxygen is set 
free. 

3. After the leaf has used all the food-material 

needed from the sap-solu- 
tion brought up from the 
soil through the roots and 
stem, the excess of water is 
thrown off by the leaf. This 
is called transpiration. 

A great amount of water 
is passed out of some plants 
in this way. In the corn 
plant about 275 pounds of 
water are passed through 
the plant for each pound of 
dry matter in the corn. In 
oats almost double this amount of water is handled by 




Fig. 87. Magnified Section 

OF Under Side of Leaf 

Showing Breathing 

Pores 



288 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

the plant. These are the three principal uses oi the 
leaves to the plant. 

Leaves make our food. — Plant food is manufactured 
in the leaves in the form of starch, is changed to sugar, 
and with other nitrogenous matter in solution, is sent 
to the various parts of the plant, there to be changed 
again into root, stem, leaf, or fruit. We ought surely 
to take our hats off to the leaves, for it is they that make 
possible all our grain, fruit, vegetable, and flower, all 
the wood and all the food we have, in a word all things 
useful and beautiful are made by the leaves. 
Practical Exercises 
1. Transpiration in ilie Leaf 

Take a plant that is well started in a flower-pot, a 
piece of cardboard, and two glass tumblers large enough 
to cover the plant. Cut a slit in the cardboard and 
draw it around the plant. Seal the slit so that no mois- 
ture can come through it from below. Cover the plant 
with the glass, and allow the roots to extend into the 
water of the glass below. Moisture will collect on the 
inner surface of the glass. Where does it come from? 
Is all the moisture absorbed by the roots given off in this 
way? How could you find out? Why do plants need 
water ? 

2. Forms of Leaves 

Collect and make drawings of seven different shaped 
leaves. 

Leaves like the locust leaf are compound. Those like 
the oak are simple. Classify your leaves as to whether 
they are simple or compound. 



THE FLOWER 



289 



LESSON LXXXI 

THE FLOWER 

Use of the flower. — -However much the flowers 
serve to beautify the world and increase man's enjoy- 
ment, that is not their chief use. The fruit of the plant 
bears the seed, and the flower produces the fruit. That 
is the chief duty of the flower. Every plant that pro- 
duces seed has flowers. 

Structure of the flower. — Let us see what a flower 
is. Take for example a buttercup, cherry blossom, or 
the violet. You will find on the outside a row of green 
leaves enclosing the flower when it is still a bud. These 



r-AnTHiR 

mm 

Ot/ARy~. 




FILAMC.NT- 




Fig. 88. A Stamen A Pistil Vertical Section of Tomato Blossom 

leaves are called sepals. Next on the inside is a row of 
colored leaves, or petals. Arranged inside of the petals 
are some threadlike parts, each witli a knob on the end. 
These are the stamens. Examine one stamen closely. 
On the tip of its knob you should find, if the flower is 
fully opened, some fine grains of powder. This sub- 



290 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 

stance is called pollen, and the knob on the end in which 
the pollen is borne is called the anther. The pollen is 
very important to the flower. Without it there could 
be no seed. But there is another part to each flower that 
is of equal value. This part you will find in the center 
of the flower, inside the circle of stamens. It is called 
the pistil. The tip of the pistil is the stigma. The base 
of the pistil forms the ovary. If you carefully cut open 
this ovary, you will find in it very small unripe seed. 

In the corn flower and many others, the stamens and 
pistils are separate on the same plant. In some plants 
these parts occur on separate individuals. 

Now no plant can bear seeds unless the pollen of 
the stamen falls upon the stigma. The wind and the 
insects help to carry the pollen to the stigma. 

Staminate and pistillate flowers. — Flowers that 
have both stamens and pistils are called perfect flowers. 
Those having only stamens are called stamenate flowers. 
Those having onlj^ pistils are called pistillate flowers. 
Some varieties of strawberries have individual plants 
that contain the stamenate flowers and other individuals, 
the pistillate flowers. In planting such varieties it is 
evident that both kind of flowers would have to be pro- 
vided, otherwise the plants would produce no berries. 
In many plants, such as the clovers for example, the 
pollen will not grow into the pistil of the same flower, 
but the pistil must get its pollen from some other flower 
before the young seeds will develop. The seed of corn 
is often mixed because the wind or bees carry pollen 
from different varieties to the silks at the growing ear. 



« 



PLANT STEMS 291 

The tassel of the corn is the stamenate flower, and the 
silks, the pistillate flower. 

Practical Exercises 

1. The Structure of the Flower 
Get specimens of three or four different kinds of flow- 
and fill out the following table from your observation 
of each flower: 

"* I ' i j I No. of Pistils 

Name of | | No. of Petals ! No. of I Seeds 

Flower | No. of Sepals i and color | Stamens | many or few 



Make a drawing of each of the parts of the flower and 
of the whole flower. 

LESSON LXXXII 

PLANT STEMS 

Purposes of stems. — In our studies of the parts of 
growing plants we shall learn something more about 
plant stems. As the root develops from the base of the 
caulicle in the embryo of the seed, the plumule, or first 
shoot, develops from the other end and becomes the 
main stem of the plant. Stems serve the plants three 
purposes: (1) They support the branches and hold 
the leaves up to the light. (2) They conduct the water 
and mineral food up from the ground to the leaves, and 
the starch and other manufactured food materials from 
the leaves down to the roots and other parts of the 
plant wherever needed. (3) They serve in some cases 
as storehouses for the reserve food of the plant. 



292 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

Man has made the stems of plants serve him in other 
M^ays. They provide him with lumber, posts, poles, and 
fuel. They serve in man.y cases as food, and indirectly 
furnish materials both for food and clothing. 

Stem structure. — Unlike the root, the stem is devel- 
oped in sections, similar in a way to the stories of a 
building. Each section or story consists of one or more 
leaves attached to the farthest end of the section. The 
part of the stem to which the leaves are attached is called 
the node, and the part between the leaves is called the 
internode. The nodes are the points where the lateral 
buds are formed, and the internodes elongate causing 
the growth in length of the stem. The structure of the 
inside of stems will be seen in the practical exercises 
to follow. 

Habits of growth. — Plants have stems that are 
erect, standing above ground, and strong enough to sup- 
port all the leaves and branches. The stems of other 
plants are twining, or lie prostrate upon the ground. 
The stems of some plants are entirely underground, 
either condensed into short bulbs or running like root- 
stocks for a considerable length, bearing leaves above 
ground from their nodes. Still other plants are with- 
out stems, bearing their leaves from the root crowns. 

Practical Exercises 
1. Types of Stem Structure 
Each pupil should have sections about six inches long, 
of corn-stalk and of a twig from a tree. 

Compare the cross sections of the two stems. Note 



1 



PLANT STEMS 293 

that in the corn-stalk the woody fibres are scattered 
irregularly through the pith, while in the tree stem 
the wood is arranged in circles around the pith. Make 
drawings of the cross sections to show this. 

Cut the stems into longitudinal sections, and make 
drawings to show the arrangement of the wood and 
pith. 

These two kinds of stems represent the two great 
groups of flowering plants having closed seed vessels — 
monocotyledons and dicotyledons. The corn stem be- 
longs to the former, and the tree stem to the latter. The 
grasses, lilies, palms, etc., are monocotyledons, and the 
trees, most of the weeds and grains are dicotyledons. 

2. Field Study of the Corn Plant 

Go to the nearest corn field, and note your observa- 
tions on the following points : 

1. How many joints and how many blades have 
formed on the corn stems? 

2. Would you prefer stalks with short or long inter- 
nodes ? Why ? 

3. Why do stalks grow tall and slender when planted 
too thickly? 

4. If the ear has formed, count the number of nodes 
above and below it. 

5. What height above the ground would you think 
best for the ear to be? 

6. Note how the blade is attached to the stem. 

7. Note the stem above the last node. It develops 
into the tassel. 



294 



LESSONS IN AGEICULTUBE 



3. Habits of Stem Growth 
Fill out the table below with several examples of the 
kinds of stems indicated : 

Stems on the Basis of Habit of Growth 



I I I Condensed 1 

Twining- | Prostrate |Undergr'und| bulb stem | Stcmless 



1. What purposes do stems serve to the plant? 

2. For what purposes do plant stems serve man! 

3. Name the other parts of the plant attached to 
the stem. 



JUNE 

On the farm. — June is one of the busiest months of 
the year on the farm. The work is not so varied, but it 
is urgent and laborious. There are persistent, vigor- 
ously growing weeds to contend with, insects to combat, 
corn fields, truck patches, and gardens to cultivate, and 
clover and alfalfa to cut. 

LESSON LXXXIII 
WEEDS 

Weeds, a great pest. — The farmer's life is a contin- 
ual battle against the enemies of his crops. He must 
work hard to combat insect pests and plant-diseases, but 
harder still to eradicate the weeds. Any plant growing 
where the farmer does not want it might be considered 
a weed. Weeds are objectionable because they rob other 
plants of their food, moisture, and sunlight. 

Classes of weeds. — Weeds may be divided into three 
classes — annuals, biennials, and perennials. Annuals 
are those plants that go to seed every year, and die, 
coming up from the seed year after year. Pigweed, 
wild mustard, and ragweed are examples of this class. 
To destroy such weeds, prevent them from going to 
seed. Biennials are plants that live for two years. They 
grow up from the seed one year and produce a heavy 
root. The next year they grow up from this root, pro- 

295 



296 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

duce seed and then die. To destroy this class of weeds, 
pull them up by the roots the first year or prevent them 
from seeding the second year. Burdock, bull thistle, 
and mullein belong to this class. Perennials are those 
plants that seed every year but whose roots live on from 
year to year. The only way to eradicate the perennials 
is to destroy them root and branch. These are the hard- 
est of all to kill. The Canada thistle, ox-eye daisy, the 
fleabanes, sorrel, and common sour dock belong to this 
class. When such weeds are allowed to spread they soon 
take possession of the farm. 

Practical Exercises 

1. Studjj of Field Collections of Weeds 

Gather six or seven different kinds of weeds — roots, 

stem, leaf, and all — and take them into the school room 

for study. Answer the following questions regarding 

each of the weeds you have collected : 

Name of the Weed 

1. Kinds of soil in which it thrives best. 

2. Calculate number of seeds. 

3. How are the seeds scattered ? 

4. When ripe? 

5. At what time in the growing season do they ger- 
minate ? 

6. Does the young plant grow rapidly or slowly? 

7. What kind of roots does the plant have ? 

8. When you cut it off does a new plant come from 
the same place? 

9. Does plowing through a patch of weeds increase 
their number ? 



WEEDS 297 

10. Does the weed have any natural check, such as 
birds, insects or live stock eating the foliage? 

11. Weeds can be killed either by preventing the 
formation of seeds, or by preventing the growth of the 
foliage. Which of these methods is better suited to the 
weed in hand? 

12. What garden or field crop does this weed injure ? 
How does it injure it ? 

Write the names of twelve different kinds of weeds 
and classify as to whether they are annual, biennial, or 

perennial. 

2. Spraying to Kill Weeds 

Dissolve two pounds of iron sulphate (copperas) in a 
gallon of water, and spray over a patch of grass and 
weeds. Observe results after twenty-four hours and 
note which weeds are killed. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 
Fanners' Bulletins 

No. 28.— Weeds and How to Kill Them. 
No. 188.^Weeds Used in Medicine. 
Extracts 

No. 133. — Birds as Weed Destroyers. 

Problems 

1. If a clean field produces 60 bu. of corn per acre 
and a weedy one only 35 bu. per acre, what is the loss 
caused by weeds with corn at 35 cents per bushel? 

2. What would be the loss on a 20-acre field at the 
same rate? 

3. For how many days' labor at $1 per day will an 
amount of money equal to this loss pay? 

4. Suppose it required only four days' work to keep 



298 



LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 



an acre free from weeds, what would be the gain per 
acre? 

5. "What would be the gain on a 24-acre field ? 

6. Is the quality of ^ 
the corn from a weedy H 
field ever so good as 
that from a clean field? 
Why? 

7. Suppose clean 
oats produce 65 bu. per 
acre and weedy oats 
produce only 48 bu. per 
acre, with oats at 30 
cents per bushel, what 
is the loss from weeds? 
What is the loss on a 
16-acre field? 

8. Are oats grown in 
a weedy field as good in 
quality as clean grown 
oats ? Explain. 

9. Give several rea- 
sons for weedy oats. 
Can weeds in oats be 
easily destroyed after 
the oats are sown? i 

10. Will crop rota- 
tion prevent weeds in oats? What is a good crop for 
oats to follow? Why? 

11. A yield of 300 bu. of potatoes per acre would 
be an excellent crop. The land would need to be well cul- 




FiG. 89. Weed Lesson. 
Amaranth ; b, crab grass ; c, rag 
weed ; d, pigeon grass. 



TRUCK CROPS 299 

tivated and kept free from weeds to produce this. Sup- 
pose but 140 bu. are grown instead, what is the loss 
from lack of labor? At 25 cents per bushel what is the 
money value of this loss? 

12. For how many days' labor at $1.25 per day will 
an amount of money equal to this loss pay ? 

13. Suppose only twelve days' extra labor were re- 




FiG. 90. Grain Weeding Plots 

quired to give the larger yield, how much would be 
gained ? 

14. If the farmer did these extra twelve days' work 
himself, what would he get per day for his time ? 

LESSON LXXXIV 
TRUCK CROPS 
During the month of June the harvesting of truck 
crops again calls our attention to the vegetable garden. 



3G0 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



On our forty-acre farm we are not specializing in truck 
gardening, and we shall have little for the market per- 
haps, hut our tables will be abundantly supplied with 
new and fresh vegetables. 

Profit in truck crops. — Vegetables grown for market 
are called truck crops. Many farmers in all sections 
of the country are finding "truck farming" more profit- 
able than any other. Truck gardening combines well 



1 




Fig. 91. Oxion Harvest 

with general farming, for it may bring money returns 
before and after the standard farm crops mature. To- 
matoes, cabbage, strawberries, cantaloupes, onions, en- 
dive, beans, sweet corn, asparagus, peas, and beets have 
all been found profitable, and there should be larger 
developments in the trucking business in the future. 

General requirements. — In order to obtain the 
earliest vegetables, and thus realize most profit in the 



TRUCK CROPS 301 

trucking business, the soil should be light, warm and 
quick. Truck crops require heavy applications of fer- 
tilizers. Cabbage and tomatoes succeed best on lands 
that are rich in humus, hence it is best to practice 
rotation of crops and include a cover crop of cow peas 
or clover to turn under, or to apply annually an ample 
supply of barnyard manure. Low lands are usually 
richer in humus than uplands, and if properly drained, 
make the better sites for truck gardens. 

Every truck crop demands special attention and treat- 
ment, and details cannot be given here. The following 
bulletins from the Department of Agriculture treat of 
special truck crops : 

Note. The only practical suggestion to offer in con- 
nection with this lesson is to advise every boy and girl 
who reads it, seriously to try out some garden vegetable 
for the profit there is in growing and marketing it. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 
Farmers' Bulletins 

No. 35. — Potato Cultnve. 

No. 354. — Onion Culture. 

No. 52.— The Sugar Beet. 

No. 60. — Methods of Curing Tobacco. 

No. 82.— The Culture of Tobacco. 

No. 83.— Tobacco Soils. 

No. 120. — The Principal Insect Affecting the Tobacco Plant. 

No. 129.— Sweet Potatoes. 

No. 61. — Asparagus. 

No. 94. — Cabbage. 

No. 220.— Tomato. 

No. 282.— Celery. 

No. 359. — Canning Vegetables. 

Problems 

1. A sugar factory agrees to pay $4.50 per ton for 

all beets testing 14 per cent, or less, of sugar. They 



302 LESSONS IX AGEICULTUEE 

also agree to give an additional 25 cents per ton for 
each additional 1 per cent of sugar or fraction thereof 
over 14 per cent, if the fraction exceeds one-half per 
cent. What is the price of beets testing 13.7 per cent? 
14 per cent? 14.3 per cent? 14.7 per cent? 15 per 
cent? 15.2 per cent? 15.6 per cent? 15.8 per cent? 

2. Mr. Smith's beets yield fourteen tons per acre 
and test 15 per cent. How much does he get per acre 
for his crop? 

3. On two acres of ground Mr. Jones raises 73,680 
pounds of beets which test 14.8 per cent. How much 
do his beets bring him in money per acre? 

4. If Mr. Jones spends $56 worth of labor on his 
crop of beets, what is his net profit per acre? 

5. How many onion plants will be required to set 
an acre in rows two feet apart, plants four inches 
apart in the row? 

6. If a boy can set nine plants per minute, how long 
will it take him to set them? 

7. If these onions average four ounces each, how 
many bushels are raised on an acre? If they average 
six ounces? Twelve ounces? One pound? 

8. What is the value of the crop in each case, at 
60 cents per bushel? 

9. If it requires fifty days of a boy's time, worth 
75 cents per day, to raise an acre of onions, what will 
be his profit on an acre of four-ounce onions ? 



VALUE OF BIRDS TO AGRICULTUEE 303 

LESSON LXXXV 
THE VALUE OF BIRDS TO AGRICULTURE 

Bird life, — We can not be long upon the farm in 
June without noting the joyous life of the birds. They 
are busy from dawn to dark, building their nests and 
feeding their nestlings. Nothing disturbs them except 
the heartless cat and the occasional thoughtless boy, who 
has not yet learned the great service the birds render 
to the farmer. The native birds are one of the nation's 
most valuable assets. If the birds were destroyed, in a 
very few years the insects would have multiplied to such 
an extent that our trees would be defoliated, and our 
crops destroyed. This is not fancy, but plain facts. 

Birds and insects. — It has been found by observa- 
tion and dissection that a Cuckoo consumes daily from 
50 to 400 caterpillars, and that a Chickadee will eat from 
200 to 500 insects or up to 4000 insect eggs. One hun- 
dred insects a day is a small estimate of the quantity 
consumed by insect eating birds, and most of our birds 
are insect eaters. Not only do they destroy great num- 
bers of insects, but they eat great quantities of weed 
seeds as well. The State of Illinois loses annually about 
$20,000,000 by the ravages of insects. 

It is the duty, and it should be the pleasure, of 
every citizen to do all in his power to protect these val- 
uable birds, and to encourage them to remain about our 
homes. 



304 



LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 



Practical Exercises 

1. Observational Studies of Birds Abovt the Farm 

Each pupil in the class should take a walk alone. 

along the lanes and about the fields and orchards at 

home. Take a note-book and pencil and walk quietly and 

unconcernedly looking among the trees, bushes, fences. 




Fig 



Black-Throated Warbler 



and on the ground for the birds. Prepare the following 
outline to guide you in your observations, and from 
which to make report to the school for this lesson: 



Birds observed. 

W^hat the bird was doing. 

What It eats. 

Color. 

Where it 

nests. 



y^p^^ 




FARMERS' FRIENDS 



VALUE OF BIRDS TO AGEICULTURE 



305 



2. Bird Boxes 
Each pupil should make a bird box, according to some 

design of his own choosing, and bring it to school to 

show the teacher and the rest of the class. Take the 

box home and put it up out of reach of the cat in some 

attractive place where the birds can build in it. It 




Fig. 93. Maryland Yellow-Throat 

would be well to make some bird boxes for the school 
yard also. 

Problems 

1. Suppose that the damage from insects in your 
state is 25c an acre. How much would that be for the 
whole state? 



306 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 

2. If there were three birds on every acre, how many 
birds would there be in this state? 

3. It" each bird eats 25 insects a day (a very low esti- 
mate), how many insects would be destroyed in this 
state during the months of June, July, and August ? 

4. If 120,000 insects fill a bushel basket, how many 
bushels of insects would the birds eat during the summer 
from the above estimate? 

5. Suppose that one-fourth of the birds in this state, 
as calculated above, would eat one-fourth of an ounce 
of seed daily, how many pounds of weed seeds would 
our birds destroy in three months? 

The forces that work against the increase of bird life 
are: man; the climatic elements; accidents; cats; other 
animals; birds of prey, and snakes. How can we help 
the birds in their struggle against these enemies? Each 
one of us can do something, and every time we save the 
life of one bird, we have not only done a kindness to the 
creatures we should love, but we have rendered service 
to the cause of agriculture. Have you read Longfel- 
low's poem entitled, "The Birds of Killingworth"? 

Reference: Farmers' Bulletin, No. 54. 

LESSON LXXXYI 

THE TOAD, THE FARMER'S FRIEND 

The toad and insects. — lu addition to the birds, 
about which we studied in the last lesson, the farmer has 
another valued friend in the common toad. All through 
the summer the toad is eating the harmful insects from 
our yards, gardens, truck-patches, and fields. The toad 



THE TOAD— FARMERS ' FRIEND 



307 



does more to rid the garden and field of noxious insects 
than any one species of bird, and he has solved the prob- 
lem of insecticides better than man with all his bungling 
spray-machines. 

The home of the toad. — The toad has a "homeing 
instinct," and should be placed in yards, gardens, and 




Courtesy E. F. Bigelov, Sound Beach, Conn. 
Fig. 94. The To.\d ix IIi.s Home 

fields, and become one of our most valued domestic ani- 
mals. A little stone house, containing a shallow jar of 
water will furnish an attractive home for the toad in the 
garden, and he will go forth at night like the lubber 
fiend, to do our tasks while we sleep. 

The toad a harmless creature. — Laws should be 
passed preventing the small boy from killing all the 
toads he cares to. The toad is absolutely harmless, and 
the old wart superstition is mere "bosh," and its ugli- 



n08 LESSONS IN AGRirULTUEE 

ness, so-called, becomes transformed into real beauty, 
when we see its great service in the economy of nature. 
The fact that the toad sometimes gets into wells, re- 
flects on the thriftless methods of the man who leaves 
his wells open, rather than upon the thirst of the 
poor toad, which falls in, in its search for the water that 
the man should provide for it. In these days of increas- 
ing insect pests, it behooves us to encourage and protect 
all of the natural enemies of our plant destroyers, and 
a few toads in a garden will go far toward controlling 
the cut worms, caterpillars, and the leaf -eating beetles. 

A plea for the toad. — The toad is an animal full of 
vital interest from its egg stage, through the tad-pole de- 
velopment, to the adult, and the horror and disgust with 
which this harmless beneficial friend is viewed by many 
boys and girls should be changed to intelligent sympathy 
and active appreciation in its behalf. 
Practical Exercises 
1. Watching the Toad Eat 

The day before this lesson is to be given, the teacher, 
with the pupils' assistance, should have a box about a 
cubic foot in size, screened off on two opposite sides 
with common door-screening, and a little hinged door of 
some sort made, through which the toads and insects 
may be put into the box. 

Place two toads in the box on the evening before the 
lesson, and they will be hungry enough to "show off" 
well for the class. Announce the plan beforehand, and 
ask the pupils to bring in flies, bugs, butterflies, cater- 
pillars, worms, beetles, etc. 



CUTTING CLOVER AND ALFALFA 309 

When the lesson is ready to begin, place the box be- 
fore the class, put all the insects in with the toads, and 
watch them eat. Such an interesting sight the pupils 
seldom see. The insects disappear as if by magic, 
snapped in by the toad's long tongue with lightning 
rapidity. Have some pupil count how many insects the 
toad eats during the recitation time. 

Place one toad in the glass tumbler, cover with a 
mosquito netting and pass it around among the pupils, 
so that all can see the beautiful eyes — "the fabled jewel" 
in the toad's head. 

LESSON LXXXVII 

CUTTING CLOVER AND ALFALFA 

It is during the second year of our red clover field, 
and the third or fourth year of the alfalfa stand, and 
we must begin to harvest these crops this month. 

Values of clover. — Next to alfalfa, red clover is one 
of the most valuable forage crops for stock feeding. Al- 
most every farm animal is benefited by the feeding of 
red clover. Its merits in this respect are not fully ap- 
preciated as a farm crop. It is valuable as hay, as a 
soiling crop, and as a green manure crop ; its roots ren- 
der the soil open and porous, and richer in nitrogen. 

Making- clover hay. — Clover should be cut when free 
from moisture, and when about one-third of the blos- 
soms have begun to turn brown. At this time the clover 
will make the most nutritious hay. The clover is cut 
and allowed to lie in the swath until almost dry, when 



310 



LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 



it is raked into windrows, and allowed to dry more. 
Then the windrows are gathered into piles or hay-cocks. 
These may stand in the field a day or two or be hauled 
to the stack or barn at once. It should be the aim of 
the farmer to save all the leaves of the clover possible, 
for they contain much food material. Rains and dews 
are injurious to the crop while curing, quickly changing 
the color of the leaves to a dark brown, and soon de- 




FiG. 95. Alfalfa 

stroying the rich aroma from the oils which make clover 
so palatable and attractive. Red clover furnishes ex- 
cellent pasture for stock of all kinds, but the result of 
this practice is usually the destruction of the plants. 

Harvesting alfalfa. — Alfalfa is harvested for hay in 
a similar manner to clover. It is cut when about one- 
fifth of the heads are in blossom. As soon as cut new 
growth starts up, and in a few weeks it can be cut again 



AGRICULTUEAL IMPROVEMENT 311 

for hay. Usually three or four crops «an be cut from 
the same field in a season. The hay is cured in the same 
way as clover, but more care needs to be taken to save 
the leaves, as they drop off easily as soon as dry. 
Problems 

1. Ask some farmer how many tons of clover hay an 
acre should yield, and calculate the yield for ten acres.' 
What price would the clover hay from ten acres bring 
if sold at the market rate? 

2. Find the number of tons in a rick of clover hay, 
25 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 40 feet over? 

3. Find the number of tons in a mow, 40 feet long, 
25 feet wide, and 12 feet high. 

4. How many tons of hay will your father's barn on 
the farm at home hold? 

Note. To find the number of tons of hay : 

In moiv. ]\Iultiply together the height, length and 

breadth in feet, and divide the product by 450 for 

timothy, and by 600 for clover hay. 

In rick. Multiply the length by the breadth and that 

product by one half the difference between the breadth 

and the distance over. This will give cubic feet. Divide 

as above to find the number of tons. 

References: Farmers' Bulletin, No. 278. Clover Farming, 
Wallace. 

LESSON LXXXVIII 

FIVE LINES OF AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT 

Out-line Beview 
Since June is one of the best months for many of the 
improvements suggested by the outline given below. 



312 LESSONS IN AGRICULTUEE 

this lesson is inserted at this point as a review outline. 
Pupils should study the following outline until they are 
able to reproduce it: 

1. Seed Improvement 

1. Selection for: 

a. Purity. 

b. Trueness to type. 

c. Viability. 

d. General vigor. 

2. Testing for: 

a. Germination. 

b. Vigor of growth. 

3. Plant breeding. 

2. Live Stocl: Improvement 

1. Use of pure breeds. 

2. Proper care and feeding. 

3. Soil Culture Improvement 

1. Drainage. 

2. Tillage. 

3. Manuring. 

4. Fertilizing. 

5. Liming. 

6. Crop rotation. 

4. ChecMng the Waste 

1. In fruit-growing by: 

a. Spraying. 

b. Pruning, tillage, etc. 

2. In forests by: 

a. Checking fires. 



AGEICULTURE IMPEOVEMENT 313 

b. More careful lumbering. 

3. In field crops by : 

a. Use of good seed. 

b. Good cultivation. 

4. In manures 'and fertilizers by : 

a. Spreading manures often or preventing its 
leaching away. 

b. Using only the fertilizers needed. 

5. In live stock and feeding by : 

a. Having pure-bred stock. 

b. Intelligent care in handling. 

c. Feeding balanced rations of good standards and 
not buying patent medicines and feeds. 

6. In human efforts by : 

a. Knowledge and practice of scientific agriculture. 

5. Country Life Organkaiion:i 

1. Boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. 

2. The grange. 

3. Consolidated schools. 

4. Country churches. 



JULY 

On the farm. — This is the month of wheat harvest 
and hay-making. Tlie orchard is to be sprayed again to 
cheek the second brood of codling moths and spread of 
various fruit rots. The catalpa grove and young orchard 
should be sown to cow peas or some other legume. Such 
succession crops as beans, cabbage, peas, lettuce, radishes, 
turnips, etc., may be planted in the garden this month. 

LESSON LXXXIX 

ROADS AND EOAD-MAKING 

Perhaps the best time of the year to make roads and 
improve the old ones is in the spring season, but there 
are certain improvements which can profitably be made 
in July and August. Working the roads late in autumn 
or in winter is not advisable, because they will not get 
settled, and will remain bad all winter. 

Good roads and country life. — Our life in the country 
will never be as attractive as it ought to be until we 
have good roads. Bad winter roads that keep the 
young people in their homes for many months, cause 
them to grow to dislike the country, and to join that 
throng of restless humanity moving steadily toward the 
cities. Will not the young people who love their coun- 
try homes enter into this crusade for better roads? 

314 



ROADS AXD ROAD MAKING 



315 



All industrial interests are affected by the nature 
and condition of the country roads, over which the 
products of the farm are transported to market, but it 
is the farmer who suffers most from the inferior roads 
— which constitute so large a percentage of the road 
system of the United States. Over our country roads 




Fig. 96. A Bad Road 

there are annually hauled at least 250,000,000 tons. A 
system of better roads would reduce the cost of hauling 
this volume of freight one-half or two-thirds of what it 
now costs. Following are some of the values of good 
roads. 

1. A direct saving in dollars and cents. How? 

2. A saving of time. 

3. Makes country life more desirable. How? 



316 



LESSOXS IN AGEICULTUEE 



4. Makes school and church attendance more con- 
venient. 

5. JMore humane to horses. 

6. Helps every industry of the city. "Why? 

As a part . of the preparation of this lesson, each 
pupil should write a brief essay upon one of these 
topics. 




Fig. 07. An Improved Road 
Points in the Construction of a Good Road 

1. A level road or gradual grade, whenever pos- 
sible. 

2. The road bed, highest in the middle and sloping 
to each side, having a fall of one inch to three or four 
feet. 

3. Under-drains in wet places, and side-ditches 



EOADS AND EOAD-MAKING 317 

to carry off surface water should furnish the drainage 
necessary for good roads. Water, standing or run- 
ning, in roads is the great destroyer of good roads. 

4. The surface should be hard and smooth. A good 
surface is made by putting a layer of larger stones at 
the bottom, a layer of smaller stones next, and crushed 
stone or gravel as the top layer. 

5. Ordinary earth roads can be improved b.y proper 
grading and drainage. The best time to do this is in 
the spring after the ground is settled. 

6. Drains should be kept open, and all depressions 
filled. 

Pupils should write a paragraph on one of these 
topics in their note-books. 

Practical Exercises 
1. Constructing a Eoad 

For the second part of this lesson it might be pos- 
sible at the school to construct a path from the school' 
liouse to some desired point a few rods away, accord- 
ing to the best principles of road-making. 

If some of the larger boys or some school patron 
would furnish a few loads of coarse stone, a few loads 
of gravel, a plow and a team for a few hours, an inter- 
esting and profitable demonstration of good road-mak- 
ing could be made at the school. 

1. Select the line for the road or walk. 

2. Measure off a space six feet wide, the entire 
length of the walk to be constructed, and mark it with 
stakes. 

8. Plow up the whole area, turning it toward the 



318 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 

middle. Then with spades or a scraper, if the space 
is large, grade it up from the sides to the center, so 
that the center is about one inch higher than the level 
of the ground where it is not plowed. 

4. Place a layer of coarse stones over this surface 
next, and a layer of gravel or finer stones over the 
coarser stones. Smooth it all over so that the walk 
gradually slopes from the center to the ditch left at 
the side by the plow's furrow. 

5. The walk is now ready for use. The side ditch 
or drain should be kept open, and the roadbed proper- 
ly graded. 

Eeferences : Farmers' Bulletin, Nos. 136 and 338. 

Problems 

1. Find out how much tax your father pays for the 
roads of the county. What is the rate of road tax in 
your county or state? 

2. Learn from some citizen or from your Road 
Commissioner his estimate of the cost of constructing 
a mile of gravel or crushed stone road in your section, 
and then determine what it would cost to build such 
a road on all the main lines of the school district. 

LESSON XC 
TIMOTHY HAY 

Time for harvest. — Very soon after the wheat har- 
vest is over the timothy hay will be ready for cutting. 
We have five acres on our farm, and we shall expect at 
least three tons per acre. Some farmers say that timothy 



TIMOTHY HAY 



319 



hay should be cut just as it is coming into blossom, others 
say to wait until the blossoms have all fallen. We shall 
cut our hay when the blossoms are beginning to fall. 

General requirements for meadow. — Timothy does 
well on rather heavy soils like clay and. humus loams. 
It also does well on muck soils, but it is likely to become 
too coarse stemmed. The seed of timothy is usually sown 




Fig. 98. Timothy Hay at West \ii;.i;.!.. i i . i ^ion — 

Five Tuns 1'eu Avuh 

in autumn with wheat or rye. After the grain is cut the 
timothy occupies the field, and the next year is cut for 
hay. It may be used several years for hay, especially 
if top dressed in the spring with stable manure. Timothy 
may be sown alone in the fall on well prepared land. A 
bushel of seed is used for about six acres of land. In 
practice timothy is often grown with red clover. A re- 
cent practice of many farmers is to sow both timothy and 



320 



LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 



clover seed together late in the summer. When sown 
in this way, a fall crop of hay is secured the following 
season. 

Meadow grasses. — Timothy hay is cut with a 
mower, allowed to cure in the swath, raked into wind- 
rows, and later into hay -cocks, from which to be stacked 




Fig. 9tf. A Haying Scene 

or stowed in the mow. Other good hay grasses are or- 
chard grass, red top, millet, etc., and all these are en- 
riched by the legumes in combination. The legumes in 
combination with the other hay grasses, help to maintain 
the meadow's fertility, and to bring it to a higher yield. 



PASTURES 321 

Problems 

1. How much would the hay from our five-acre field 
bring if placed on the market at the prevailing price ? 

2. Ascertain how much stable manure should be 
spread upon our meadow as a top dressing after the hay 
is cut. 

3. Write a list of the different grasses and legumes 
used as hay. 



LESSON XCI 

PASTURES 

Pastures need attention. — While we are working 
with meadows and hay we shall try to learn something 
about pastures. It is well known that the ordinary pas- 
ture throughout the country receives very little atten- 
tion and is of little value when compared with other 
farm lands. With proper seeding and care the pasture 
might be made as valuable as any other part of the 
farm. Mr. McClennan, of the New York States Col- 
lege farm, states that in several of the European coun- 
tries land valued at from $2,000 to $3,000 per acre has 
been kept in pasture for generations and at a profit, be- 
cause it is intelligently seeded and properly treated. It 
is entirely practical to re-seed pastures with any kind of 
grass desired without breaking up the soil or injuring 
the sod. 

Grasses for pasture. — Good pasture land should be 
seeded with such variety of grasses as will supply plenty 



322 



LESSONS IN AORICULTUEE 



of food for the stock from early spring to late fall. Mr. 
iMcClennan gives the following grasses for permanent 
pasture : "A mixture of seed containing 4 pounds of or- 
chard grass, 4 pounds of meadow fescue, 3 pounds of 
tall oat grass, 2 pounds of timothy, 2 pounds of alsike 





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Fig. 100. The Tasture 

clover, and 2 pounds of white clover. Total, 24 pounds. ' ' 
The purpose of combining all these grasses in one field 
is to have plants ripening at various periods throughout 
the season, and adapting themselves to varying soil con- 
ditions. The above mixture would not be suitable for 
meadow purposes, because none of the plants would de- 
velop and ripen together. In limestone regions the Ken- 
tucky blue grass furnishes a permanent and ideal pas- 
ture throughout the entire season: IMr. AV. D. Zinn, of 



DRY FARMING 333 

Philippi, West Virginia, has been of great service to 
farmers of this country through his Pasture Clubs, or- 
ganized for mutual helpfulness in the improvement of 
pastures. 

Problems 

1. How much seed would be needed to renew the pas- 
ture on our forty-acre farm, using the amount quoted 
above on each acre ? 

2. How many head of stock should we allow on our 
pasture, if in good average condition of growth ? 

3. Examine the pastures at home and report how 
much stable manure it will require to cover the bare 
and poor spots, at the rate of six tons per acre. 

4. J\Take a list of the pasture grasses grown in your 
community. 

References: Farmers' Bulletin, No. 66. Forage Crops Other 
Than Grasses. — Shaw. Elements of Agriculture. — Warren, 

LESSON XCII 

DRY FARMING 

The problem. — At this season of the year the farm- 
er's crops are most likely to suffer from dry weather. 
During the summer the plants are making heavy drafts 
upon the earth's moisture, and the hot, dry atmosphere 
is evaporating all the water and moisture exposed to it. 
In certain semi-arid sections of the country the farmers 
have met this problem of conserving moisture by a sys- 
tem known as ''dry farming. " Tt has been demonstrated 
that a certain amount of water is indispensable. To pro- 
duce a single pound of dry substance in wheat, 1.200 



324 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 

pounds of water are necessary. It would, therefore, be 
impossible to produce a crop year after year on the same 
dry area. The question is not one of fertility of soil, but 
of conservation of moisture. 

The conservation of moisture. — By the system of 
dry farming the solution of the problem consists in sum- 
mer fallowing of the land, which tneans that the ground 
is plowed as deep as possible and left to rest and absorb 
all the rainfall it can. A person with a two-hundred 
acre farm would by this method use only one-half of his 
land at a time for crops and allow the other half to 
lie fallow. A crop every year on all the land would 
hopelessly dry up all the soil. In addition to the deep 
plowing and summer fallowing, a loose surface mulch 
must be kept over the fields to prevent the moisture from 
evaporating. In this way the twelve or thirteen inches of 
rainfall, characteristic of many semi-arid regions, is 
caught and held to supply the moisture for the crop of a 
single season. 

Certain crops have been bred up to be adapted to the 
dry farming system, among which are the macaroni 
wheat, Turkestan alfalfa, dwarf Milo maize, and Swedish 
oats. At the present time wheat is the principal crop in 
dry farming. 

Practical Exercises 

1. See Exercise 5, Lesson 46. 

2. Hotv Moisture is Saved by the Dry Earth Produced 63/ 
Frequent Shalloiv Cultivation. 

Suspend a tin can from each end of a small stick four- 
teen to sixteen inches long and balance over a nail driven 
through a hole at the middle of the stick. 



DEY FAEMING 325 

Fill one can full of moist soil and the other to within 
about one inch of the top with a portion of the same soil. 
Pour dry dust over the surface of the soil in the second 
can to the depth of about an inch. Adjust the amount 
of soil in the two cans so that the system exactly bal- 
ances. Allow the apparatus to stand over night. The 
amount of water that must be added to one can to restore 
a balance represents the water that has been saved by 
the protective covering of dust — the dry earth mulch. 
Hold the bar horizontally while adding the water. 

The effect of mulches of cut straw, leaves, or other 
material may be studied in the same way. 



AUGUST 

On the farm. — This is the month when the farmer 
may take a little vacation, and every farmer should leave 
his farm, if possible, for a short vacation at least once a 
year. There are plenty of things to do, however, in 
August, if the farmer wishes to find work. Perhaps he is 
planning to sow an alfalfa field, or he may have to break 
his wheat ground. If the weather is rainy he may have 
to dig his potatoes. He will probably sow a patch of tur- 
nips. There will be fence corners to mow and clean out. 
Perhaps he may have some melons or cucumbers or other 
truck to market. Of course he should help the housewife 
to pick blackberries, peaches or apples, for she is very 
busy at canning this month. The teacher and pupils 
will think of other work going on during August. 

LESSON XCIII 

ALFALFA 

Essentials in growing alfalfa. — It is worth the trial 
for most farmers to begin the production of alfalfa. 
There are a few essentials in alfalfa culture that are re- 
quired for success. 

1. The seed bed must be in perfect "onion tilth." 

2. The ground should be inoculated with the bacteria 
necessary to produce the root-nodules. This may be done 

326 



ALFALFA 



327 



by sprinkling the soil of the field with soil from an old 
alfalfa or sweet clover field. 

3. There must be plenty of lime in the soil. 

4. Weeds must not be allowed to choke out the young 
alfalfa plant. 

5. The ground must be well drained and have a por- 
ous sub-soil, for alfalfa has a long tap-root and must 
grow deep into the soil. 

6. The seed must be pure and viable, and sown at the 
rate of 25 pounds per acre. With these conditions pro- 
vided alfalfa may be grown much more widely than at 
present. 

Practical Exercises 
1. An Alfalfa Plot Test 
If the required amount of land cannot be obtained on 
the school grounds, a farmer living near the school will 
probably be glad to furnish the land. Select the site in 
any plowed-up ground, lay out the following plats, each 
one rod square : 



1 


3 
INOCULATION 


LIME 
2 


LIME 

4 

INOCULATION 



Drive stakes at each corner of each plat. 



328 LESSONS IM AGRICULTUEE 

Sow about eight quarts of lime on plats 2 and 4, four 
quarts on each plat, which is equivalent to about twenty 
bushels on an acre. Obtain some soil from a place where 
alfalfa or sweet clover is growing, and scatter a few 
quarts of this on plats 3 and 4, being careful not to get 
it on the other plats. This is inoculating the soil with 
the bacteria of the alfalfa. Then sow a light seeding of 
oats or barley over all the plats, a little more than a quart 
is sufficient. Then sow about three-fourths of a pound 
of alfalfa over the four plats and rake it in. Be care- 
ful not to rake any of the soil from the inoculated plats 
into the others. 

No further care need be given the plats until the bar- 
ley or oats is headed out, when it should be mowed off 
above the tops of the alfalfa plants. The oats or barley 
should not be allowed to mature in the alfalfa. School 
may be closed before this experiment is finished ; but the 
teacher should appoint a committee to study and report 
the observations of the summer, and all living near 
should be encouraged to watch the experiment. This is 
getting lessons from the real source and not from books 
alone. 

Draw the plats in the agricultural note-books, and an- 
swer the following questions : 

How soon does the barley or oats come up? The al- 
falfa? In six weeks observe the roots of the alfalfa in 
each plat. In which plats are swollen nodules found on 
the alfalfa roots ? What is the effect of the lime and in- 
oculation ? Observe the difference in growth in the four 
plats. 



BUDDING FEUIT TBEES 329 

The surest way to get alfalfa to grow on a poor soil 
is to manure the soil, cultivate it, and sow about August 
the 1st, applying lime and inoculation, if necessary. 

This work may be carried on at the students' home if 
there are no plats for it near the school. The home work 
of these lessons is to be greatly encouraged. 

References: Alfalfa Book. — Coburn. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 
215. 

LESSON XCIV 

BUDDING FRUIT TREES 

August is the month when young peach and apple trees 
are usually budded. 

Purpose of budding. — Budding is such a simple and 
important farm operation that every boy and girl should 
know how to do it. Think of changing the little apple- 
trees in the orchard to any variety of apples you wish ! 
This is exactly what budding is for. This change can be 
made on branches as small as lead pencils, or as large as 
the thumb. The nurseryman buds the little trees a few 
inches above the surface of the ground. The fruit grower 
top buds the little trees, two or three feet above the 
ground. 

And when, above this apple-tree. 
The winter stars are quivering bright 
And winds go howling through the night, 
Girls, whose young eyes o'erflow with mirth, 
Shall peel its fruit by cottage-hearth, 

And guests in prouder homes shall see. 
Heaped with the grape of Cintra 's vine 



330 



LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 



And golden orange of* the line, 
The fruit of the apple-tree. 

— Bryant. 
Practical Exercises 
1. Budding the Peach 
The class may go to a young orchard near the school 
for this lesson, or several branches of young trees may 
be brought into the schoolroom. 

1. Choose the place for the bud. Make a horizontal 





Fig. 101. Budding 

cut across the stem, just through the bark. Then be- 
ginning in the middle of the horizontal cut, draw the 
knife straight down making a Vertical cut. (See figure 
b). Twist the knife sidewise before drawing it out, in 
order to loosen the bark. The stock is now ready for the 
bud. 

2. Take the buds from bearing trees of the variety 
you wish. Cut twigs that have grown this year. The 
leaves are still on them. At the base of each leaf, and 
between the leaf and the branch, you will find a little 



NO TWO PLANTS ALIKE 33I 

bud. This is the bud to insert into the tree which has 
been prepared as above described. 

3. Cut the leaf off about a quarter of an inch above 
the bud, thus leaving the leaf stock as a handle for the 
bud. The end buds should not be used. Beginning with 
a sharp knife below the bud, cut upwards just through 
the bark, beneath the bud and above it about half an 
inch. Be sure to cut through the bark, but not into the 
wood. (See figure a.) 

4. Push the bud down into the cut made into the 
stock, using the leaf stalk as a handle. Be sure that the 
entire bud is shoved into the incision. If a piece of bark 
should project above, cut it off. (See figure c). 

5. The bud is now ready for tying. Raffia is the best 
material to use, but ordinary string may be used. Be- 
gin below the bud and wrap the wound entirely, except 
where the bud is. Wrap it snugly and tightly, and then 
tie securely. (See figure d). 

6. In two or three weeks the bud will have "stuck," 
and the string may then be removed. The bud will re- 
main dormant during the winter and begin to grow the 
next spring. 

Eef erences : Farmers' Bulletins^ Nos. 157 and 218. 

LESSON XCV 
NO TWO PLANTS ALIKE 

Variations and resemblance. — It is a common 
observation of everybody that no two things are exactly 
alike. This is especially true of plants. Plants like ani- 



333 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUBE 

mals, produce offspring which resemble the parents very 
closely in many respects. If it were not for this resem- 
blance to parents in plants, our crops would not come 
true to seed, and we could not depend upon fixing de- 
sired characteristics in improving the crop. On the other 
hand, it is a good thing that no two plants are exactly 
alike, for the variation might be an improvement over 
the parent plant, and thus enable the plant breeder to 
select points for improvement. 

Practical Exercises 
1. Variations in the Corn Plant. 
Select two corn plants that most nearly resemble each 
other, and note the following points in comparison : 

1. Height of the plant. 

2. Does it branch? How many secondary stems or 
suckers from one root? 

3. Shade or color. 

4. How many leaves? 

5. Arrangement of leaves on the stem. 

6. jMeasure length and breadth of six main leaves. 

7. Number and position of ears. Color of silks. 

8. Size of tassel, and number and size of its branches. 

9. Stage of maturity or ripeness of the plant. 

10. Has the plant grown symmetrically, or has it been 
crowded by other plants, or been obliged to struggle for 
light or room? 

11. Note all the unusual marks or features. 

12. Note the comparative vigor. 

These points may be used with any two plants with 
slight modification. 



WATEE SUPPLY 333 

(Adapted from Bailey in the Cornell Rural School 
Leaflet. ) 

Keference: Farmers' Bulletin, 229. 

LESSON XCVI 

THE WATER SUPPLY 

We are likely to have little rainfall in August and our 
attention is often called to the quality as well as the 
quantity of our water supply. 

Pure water. — There is nothing of more importance 
to the health, comfort, and convenience of a farm and 
household than an abundant supply of pure water. It 
is not easy to find absolutely pure water. Some of the 
impurities in drinking water are harmless ; others are 
very injurious. The most dangerous impurities in water 
are the minute plant forms, called bacteria. One kind of 
bacteria occasionally found in drinking water, causes the 
typhoid fever. It is impossible to judge by the appear- 
ance or taste, whether water contains these dangerous 
bacteria. It may be perfectly clear and have the finest 
taste, and yet be unsafe to drink. 

Sources of drinking water are: 1. Springs. Spring 
water is almost always pure if the spring is deep and a 
good distance from foul places, such as barnyards and 
open drains. 

2. Lakes and reservoirs. Water supplied to cities is 
often taken from rivers and lakes, and purified to a cer- 
tain extent and stored in reservoirs. If there is any 
doubt about the purity of the city water, people are ad- 
vised to boil it in order to kill all the dangerous bacteria. 



334 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 

3. Wells. If wells are on a lower level than the barns 
or outhouses, they are likely to contain water with the 
dangeroiis bacteria in it. If any surface water can drain 
into the well it renders the water impure and unfit to 
drink. The land should not slope to the well from any 
house or barn, and the well cover should be perfectly 
tight to prevent animals from getting into it. 

Good rules for drinking water. — 1, If there is any 
doubt about the purity of drinking water it should be 
boiled. 

2. Allow no standing water about the farm premises, 
for it may be the source of contamination for the drink- 
ing water. 

3. Do not drink out of the cup at public drinking 
places, nor from the common cup or dipper often used 
in the schoolroom, for many disease germs are carried 
from one mouth to another, through the common drink- 
ing vessel. Pupils should have their own individual 
drinking cups. 

4. Always have clean fresh water for the farm ani- 
mals, for their health and growth depends as much on 
the water supply as does our own. 

Practical Exercises 
1. Simple Tests of Water 
If this lesson is given in a school that has the material 
named, the following tests will prove interesting and val- 
uable : 

1. Test for animal or plant matter : 
Fill a clean test-tube half full of the drinking water, 
Add a drop or two of concentrated sulphuric acid, and 



UNITED STATES WEATHER SERVICE 335 

.sufficient potassium permanganate solution to color the 
water. Heat gently to the boiling point. If the color 
changes to a brownish tint, it indicates the presence of 
organic matter. 

2. Test for chlorides : 

To a test-tube half full of water, add a few drops of 
nitric acid, and then a few drops of silver nitrate solu- 
tion. If there is any cloudiness, it shows that the water 
had traces of chlorides in it. 

3. Test for sulphates : 

To a test-tube half full of water add a few drops of 
barium chloride solution. If there is a whitish precipitate, 
it indicates the presence of sulphates in the water. 

4. Test for lime compounds: 

To a test-tube half full of water add a few drops of 
fresh solution of ammonium oxalate. A white precipitate 
indicates the presence of calcium or lime compounds. 

As a note-book record of this lesson, the pupils should 
write an essay on the Water Supply, bringing out the 
facts they have learned, and showing the attitude they 
have toward the subject. 

LESSON XCVII 

THE UNITED STATES WEATHER SERVICE 

Farmers dependent upon weather. — There is no sub- 
ject of more vital interest to the farmer than the weather. 
Especially is this true in the month of August, In the 
corn belt the condition of the weather either makes or 
mars the crop. As the rain falls "on the just and on the 



336 



LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 



unjust, ' ' SO does the dry weather come to both alike, and . 
the farmer, to whatever class he may belong, is more de- 
pendent upon the state of the weather for success in his 
business, than perhaps upon any other force. 

Weather reports. — The Department of Agriculture, 
through the Weather Service, has made provision for 



KEY TO COLORS ^[] WHITE JblUE (blACK 




Weather service flags. 



KEY TO COLORS 



BLACK 



i1 S 




Wind and storm signals. 
Fig. 102. United St.\.tes Weather Signals 

iaily weather reports to all parts of the country. These 
reports are sent out by rural telephones, by bulletins car- 
ried by the rural mail service, by means of signal flags 
of certain designs and colors, and by steam whistles 
blown sufficiently strong to be heard some distance away. 
The flags used for this purpose are as follows : 

No. 1. White flag indicates clear and fair weather. 

No. 2. Blue flag indicates rain or snow. 



UNITED STATES WEATHER SERVICE 337 

No. 3. White and blue flag indicates local rain or 
snow. 

No. 4. Black triangular flag is a temperature signal. 

No. 5. White flag with black square in the center in- 
dicates that a cold wave is expected. 

When No. 4 is placed above Nos. 1, 2, and 3, warmer 
weather is expected; when placed below these signals, 
colder weather is expected. A red flag with a black cen- 
ter indicates a storm of great violence. A red pennant 
signifies an easterly wind, while a white pennant indi- 
cates a westerly wind. When either of these pennants 
is placed above other flags, it signifies a northern wind, 
but when placed below, a southern wind is promised. 
Practical Exercises 
1. Reeving Weather Records 

Make daily weather observations for one week and 
record your observations in the following table : 

Date I Temperature I Moisture Conditions I Sky Aspect I Wind Direction 

II II 



2. Study of the Weather Signals 
Ask your rural carrier to expose the Weather Service 

Signals on his wagon, and keep a record each day of 

what the signals indicate. Note whether the report is 

correct or not. 

Draw upon the blackboard of the school each day the 

flag shown by the weather report, which foretells the 

weather for the next twenty-four hours. 



338 LESSONS IN AGETCULTUEE 

LESSON XCVIIT 
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 

Study needed. — A text-book in agriculture would 
fail in an essential duty if it did not call attention to the 
great need of the conservation of our natural resources. 
In a recent conference, Hon. Gifford Pinchot advised the 
preparation of text-books on conservation, and strongly 
urged that the problem be presented to the children of 
the public schools. 

Americans wasteful. — AA^e have been concerning our- 
selves about every other subject under the sun, while we 
ate, drank, and made merry over the abundance of our 
natural resources. As a nation we have wasted our sub- 
stance by riotous living, and now we hear our President 
sounding the alarm by saying, that the question of the 
conservation of our natural resources is one of the most 
important problems before the American people. 

The natural resources. — Disregarding the question 
of moral purposes, the prosperity of our people depends 
directly upon the energy and intelligence with which we 
use the soil, the forests, the mines, and the waters of the 
earth. Frdm the sea, the mine, the forest, and the soil, 
must be gathered everything that can sustain the life of 
man. How stands the inventory of our property at the 
beginning of the twentieth century? 

The sea and forests. — The sea furnishes 5 per cent 
of our food products. The forests are fast disappearing. 
"We are consuming wood three times faster than the for- 



CONSEEVATTON NATUEAL RESOURCES 339 

ests grow, aiid without reforestation, the present century 
will see the end of our timber. 

The mines.- — The mines of coal, oil, and gas are in- 
capable of restoration. The wealth of these resources can 
be used only once. When fuel becomes scarce, as far as 
we can now foresee, man will suffer as he would if the 
air were gradually withdrawn. One has only casually to 
observe to note the great waste of coal, oil, and gas that 
is continually going on unchecked. 

The soil. — Our greatest source of wealth is the land 
— the soil. How are we caring for it? The last census 
shows that the average annual product per acre of the 
whole country was $11.38, a little more than a respectable 
rental in some places, where the land is well cared for. 
We are robbing the soil in order to get the largest re- 
turns in the shortest time. We have done this in two 
ways — by single cropping and by neglect of fertilization. 
We need the intelligent treatment of smaller areas, rais- 
ing the productivity to three or four times the present 
rate. Thirty-six per cent of our people live directly by 
agriculture, and the rest depend upon it. We shall have 
200 million people here by 1950. Hoav shall they be 

clothed and wherewithal shall they be fed? 

Time was when the son of the farmer could go West, 
when his father's farm was run down, now all this 'is 
changed. The son of the farmer, if he follows his 
father's vocation, must make his living on his father's 
farm. This can be done, if the father exercises wisdom. 
No wise use of the soil exhausts its fertility. 

Ignorance and selfishness. — And, finally, the great- 



340 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUKE 

est waste of resources is the loss that comes to all our 
material development, through ignorant minds and un- 
skilled hands. It is the old curse of ignorance together 
with the primal sin of selfishness that has led to the waste 
of the world 's substance. 



LESSON XCIX 
AGRICULTURE AND EDUCATION 

Educational value. — The boys and girls who have 
been studying these pages and the plants and animals 
of the farm to which we have constantly referred them, 
may be sure that they have not been neglecting their 
education in this study of agriculture. We have seen 
that the science of agriculture deals not only with the 
common things and processes of everyday life in the 
country, but that it reaches out and touches all the great 
branches of science and learning. In all that goes to 
give one a modern education of culture, agriculture plays 
a large and efficient part. 

Practical value. — Agriculture has also its practical 
value as a school subject, in that its study enables the 
farmer to gain larger profits in his business. This value 
may not be realized at once by the boys and girls in 
thej, public schools, but in the extension schools and in 
the short courses at the colleges of agriculture, the 
profitableness of studying agriculture is often concrete 
and immediate. 

An actual saving of over $1,000 in horse feed resulted 
from the information gained by a prominent business 



AGEICULTUKE AND EDUCATION 341 

man and farmer of Salem, Ore., in the winter short 
course at the Oregon Agricultural College. Last year 
he came himself to the college, and this year, being 
unable to attend, sent his ranch foreman. The knowl- 
edge gained in the course on feeding of horses alone 
netted him a saving of over $1,000 in his feed bills, and 
his animals are in finer condition, he says, than ever be- 
fore. Here is another concrete illustration of the value 
of scientific agricultural information. 

Moral value. — The study of agriculture in the 
school and on the farm cannot help but make us better 
men and women. The boys and girls who love and care 
for plants and animals, surely cannot think or do as 
evil things as those who do not care for them. There 
is so much to learn, so much suffering and inconvenience 
because of ignorance, and so much service to be done, 
that the world is looking to the boys and girls in the 
public schools, who are learning how to think and to do 
things, to render the greatest service for country life. 

It remains for you, teachers and pupils, who love the 
country life and desire its best interests, in the spirit 
and intelligence with which you have pursued these 
lessons, to go forth as leaders, where leadership is so 
much needed — in the open country. Be leaders in the 
grange. Be leaders in boys' and girls' clubs. Be lead- 
ers in country school and church. Uphold and advance 
every movement that will bring larger measures of jus- 
tice and education to the farmer and his family. 



342 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 

LESSON C 

THE FARM HOME 

Home industries. — Our lessons in agriculture would 
not do justice to rural life if we did not refer to the 
country home and its works and influence. The devel- 
opment of the material and industrial side of the home 
life has not kept pace with the progress of men's work 
on the outside. Many of the industries of the early 
homes have been wisely taken from them and given over 
to the factories and shops. Two industries yet remain — 
cooking and cleaning. These are not much further ad- 
vanced in their development than they were a thou- 
sand years ago. The time may come — it is to be hoped 
that it will, when women of the home will be relieved 
from most of the drudgery of cleaning and cooking, 
and these industries be turned over to specialists who 
will do them better and cheaper than they are now done, 
and that the home may become a place of rest and 
culture for the lives within. It will be long years be- 
fore such ideals can be realized in the country, yet much 
can be done in the country home to lighten the labors 
of the mother, and enlighten the members of the house- 
hold. 

Some conditions making- for the betterment of the 
farm home: 

1. Beautiful natural surroundings, as brought out 
in a former lesson. 

2. Absolute cleanliness from cellar to garret. 

3. The absence of all carpets, lace curtains, and 



FARM HOME 343 

bric-a-brac, and their places supplied with smooth, hard- 
wood finish of window and door casings; hardwood, 
waxed floors; and furniture of plain, uncarved, smooth 
type. 

4. Few pictures, well selected, in plain, modest 
frames, placed upon walls of restful tints. 

5. Good books, daily papers, magazines, and farm 
journals in the library. 

6. Musical instruments and members of the family 
who can appreciate good music. 

7. Ample, shady porches, screened doors and win- 
dows, and well ventilated rooms. 

8. Pure, clean food, well prepared and cooked, and 
cool, clean kitchen and dining rooms in which to pre- 
pare and eat the meals. 

9. A bathroom with hot and cold water supplied. 

10. A telephone and rural free mail service. 

11. All the labor-saving machines that can be af- 
forded. 

12. Good roads, good schools, good churches, good 
markets available, and good people to live in the homes. 

A stronger and better country home ! — That is what 
we want. That is what we must have. The "New 
Earth" that is coming, will bring its rural homes of 
good cheer, of culture and education. In these homes 
will be strong men, sensible women, and happy children. 
Love will be law and wisdom chief ruler, and the child 
that is born in them is sure of all that the highest 
thought can secure for him in body, soul and spirit. 

This is the stronger home, and in that home must be 



344 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 

seen all the graces and gentleness in thought and word 
that make the happy illumination which, on the inside 
of the house, correspond to morning sunlight outside, 
falling on quiet dewy fields. Out of such homes nei- 
ther knaves in politics, nor tyrants in business competi- 
tion can ever come. With such homes, the golden age 
already dawning as the new century opens hastens its 
steps. 

And for the woman in that home : 
"A woman, in so far as she beholdeth 

Her one Beloved's face; 
A mother — with a great heart that enfoldeth 

The children of the race ; 
A body free and strong, with that high beauty 

That comes of perfect use is built thereof; 
A mind where reason ruleth over duty. 

And justice reigns with love ; 
A self-poised, royal soul, brave, wise, and tender, 

No longer blind and dumb ; 
A human being of unknown splendor, 
Is she who is to come. ' ' 



APPENDIX NOTES 345 

APPENDIX NOTES 

Suggestive List of Materials and Equipment Needed in Using 
This Book 

1. Three boxes of soil, one each of clay, sand, and 
humus loam. 

2. One dozen Mason pint fruit jars. 

3. One dozen tumblers. 

4. Four lamp chimneys. 

5. Sach's plant food tablets. 

6. Samples of commercial fertilizers. 

7. One-half dozen wide-mouth bottles. 

8. Germination test box. 

9. A fifty-foot tape line. 

10. Hoe, spade, rake, axe, etc. 

11. One pint of formaldehyde. 

12. One spray pump. 

13. Five gallons of lime-sulphur spray material. 

14. Resin, beeswax, and tallow or linseed oil. 

15. A pruning knife and saw. 

16. An insect cage. 

17. A Babcock tester. 

18. One dozen test tubes. 

19. One pound of potassium cyanide (deadly 
poison). 

20. Window boxes. 

21. A set of economic seeds. 

22. Kitchen scales, weighing to twenty-four pounds. 

23. Vessels for dry measure. 

24. Bricker's drainage apparatus. 

25. Animals and plants easily supplied from the 
farms. 



346 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 

Cornell University Score-Card for Farms 



IStandard I Students 
I Score Score 



10. 
11. 
12. 

13. 



Kind of Farming — | 

Adaptation as affecting value | 

Size— I 

As adapted to kind of farming to be used..| 
Shape — I 

As affecting shape of fields 

As affecting' nearness of farmstead | 

Topography — 

As affecting production 

As affecting ease of cultivation | 

As affecting loss of soil fertility 

Fertility — 

Natural 

Condition 

Physical Properties — 

As affecting economy of cultivation 

As affecting number of days of labor 

As affecting loss of soil fertility 

Drainage — 

Natural or artificial 

Condition — 

Freedom from stumps, stones, weeds, waste 

land, etc 

Climate — 

As affecting production of live stock 

As affecting number of days of labor 

Healthfulness — 

As an economic factor 

Water-supply — 

Running water and wells 

Location — 

Local markets 

Nei.ghbors 

Shipping facilities 

Roadways 

Improvements — 

Location of farmstead 

House as adapted to farin needs 

Other buildings as adapted to size of farm 
and kind of farming 

Fences, character, condition, arrangement.. 
Timber, orchards, vineyards, etc 



15 
5 



Total 



The above score card, worked out for the pupils' 
home farms, would make valuable lessons in Elementary 
Agriculture, 



DIAGEAMS 



347 




Diagram of Cow 

1, Muzzle; 2, Nostrils; 3. Face; 4, Fore-head; 5, Cheek; 6, Jaw; 
7, Neck; 8, Withers; 9, Back; 10, Loin; 11, Pinbone; 12, Rump; 13, 
Hips; 14, Tail; 15, Chest; 16, Brisket; 17, Throat; 18, Shoulder; 10-20, 
Fore Arm; 21. Knee; 22, Pastern; 23. Foot: 24, Chest; 25, Ribs; 
26, Belly; 27, Flank; 28, Milk Veins; 29, Udder; 30, Quarters: 31, Thigh; 
32, Escutcheon; 33, Cannon; 34, Fetlock. 



12 




■^ 19 '18' 

Diagram of Sheep 

1, Face; 2, Muzzle; 3, Nostrils: 4, Ej^e; 5, Neck; 6, Top of Shoulder; 
7, Cheek; 8, Back; 9, Loin; 10, Twist; 11, Rump; 12, Dock; 13, Brisket; 
14, Cannon; 15, Fore-leg; 16. Shoulder: 17, Knee; 18, Foot; 19, Toe; 
20, Fore flank; 21, Ribs; 22, Belly: 23, Flank; 24, Hip; 26, Leg. 



348 



LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 




1, 


Comb. 


2, 


Beak. 


3, 


Wattles. 


4, 


Lobes. 


5, 


Neck. 


6, 


Body and Fluff. 


7, 


Back. 


8-9, Tail Coverts. 


10, 


Tail Primaries. 


11, 


Tail Fluff. 


12 


■13, Wing Coverts. 


14, 


Wing Primaries. 


15, 


Breast. 


16, 


Thigh. 


17, 


Heel. 


18, 


Tarsus. 


19, 


Spur. 


20, 


Toes. 



Diagram of Chicken 




Diagram of Horse 



1, Neck. 2, Withers; 3, Back; 4, Loin; 5, Hip; 6, Dock; 7. Throat; 
8, Shoulder; 9, Breast; 10, Fore-arm; 11, Arm; 12, Wart (x); 13, Knee; 
14, Cannon-bone; 15, Fetlock; 16, Pastern; 17, Hoof; 18, Toe; 19, Chest; 
20, Ribs; 21, Belly; 22, Flanks; 24, Gaskin; 25, Quarters; 26, Stifle; 
27, Thigh; 28, Hocks. 



INDEX 



Accounts, farm, 118. 
Agricultural outlook, 129 ; 

products, 126 ; 

societies, 172. 
Agriculture and education, 340. 
Alfalfa, 309, 326. 
Animals, farm, 67. 
April on the farm, 226. 
Apples, 57, 59, 60, 63, 221, 259 ; 

judging, 62. 
Arsenate of lead, 41, 259. 
Ash in food, 106. 

Assessment of farm values, 127. 
August on the farm, 326. 
Automobiles, 132. 

Babcock test, 107. 
Bacteria, 103, 105, 209. 
Beautiful home grounds, 244. 
Beetles, 39. 
Bees, 37. 
Birds, 303. 
Bird boxes, 305. 
Books, farmers', 133. 
Bordeaux mixture, 4i. 
Boys' corn clubs, 172, 269. 
Bugs, 34. 

Buildings, farm, 17. 
Budding fruit trees, 329. 
Butter, 100, 103. 
Butterflies, 30. 

Cabbage, 243. 

Carbo-hydrates, 92. 

Carbon, 144. 

Catalpa, 253, 254. 

Celery, 243. 

Clover, 208, 309. 

Conservation of natural resources, 

338 
Codling 'moth, 259, 261. 
Corn contests, 265. 
Corn, best, 55 ; 

testing seed, 197 ; 

selecting and storing, 49 ; 

judging and scoring, 191 ; 

planting, 263 : 

cultivating, 267 ; 
Crop records, 122 ; 

rotation, 123, 213. 
Crops, classification, 65. 



cover, 218 ; 

farm, 65. 
Cotton seed meal, 95. 
Cow, beef, 81 ; 

dairy, 78. 
Country life conveniences, 131. 
Cucumbers, 242, 243. 
Cultivators, 268. 
Cuttings, 229. 

Dairy, 100, 78 ; cow, 78. 

barn, 103. 
December on the farm, 117. 
Diagram of forty-acre farm, 16 
Drainage, 158. 
Dragon flies, 36. 
Dry matter, 95. 

Ear-to-row plot for corn, 265. 

Eggs, 116. 

Embryo, 182. 

Excursion to the woods, 256. 

Farm, accounts, 118 ; 

books, 133 ; 

buildings, 17 ; 

crops, 65 ; 

forty acre, 13 ; 

home, 342 ; 

machinery, 127 ; 

selecting, 13. 
Farming, dry, 333. 
Fats, as food, 93. 
Feathers, 114. 

February on the farm, 158. 
Feeds and feeding, 91. 
Fences, 162. 

Fertilizers, 148, 149, 154. 
Flies, 32 ; dragon, 36. 
Flowers, 288. 
Food compounds, 94. 
Forestry, 249. 
Forty-acre farm, 13. 
Fruit, growing, 57, 129 ; 

trees, 221, 226, 329. 
Fungous diseases, 42, 259. 
Fungicides, 41. 

Gardening, home, 238 ; 
school, 234 : 
landscape, 245. 



349 



350 



INDEX 



Girls' tomato chibs, 283. 
Grafting. 226 ; 

wax, 228. 
Grange. 177. 
Grape cuttings. 2.31. 
Grasses, 320. 321. 
Grasshoppers, 27. 
Grazing, 129. 

Hav, alfalfa, 310. 

clover, 300 : 

timothy, 318. 
Hens, 111, 112. 
Hogs, 86. 
Home, farm, 342 ; 

gardening, 238 ; 

grounds, 244. 
Horse, draft, 74. 

driving, 70. 
Horses' plea, 77. 
Hot-bed, 167. 
H'lmus, 136. 
Hydrogen, 144. 

Insects, 24, 308. 
Insecticides, 41. 219. 
Improvement, lines of, 312. 
Iron, plant food, 144. 

■January on the farm, 130. 

Jersey cattle, 78. 

July on the farm, 314. 

Kentucky blue grass. 96, 321. 
Kerosene emulsion, 41. 22(i. 
Knot-tying, 165. 

Laboratory equipment, 345. 

Larva, 25. 

Layering, 232. 

Lead arsenate, 41, 259. 

Legumes, 208. 

Lettuce. 243. 

Lime, 152, 326. 

Listing corn, 264. 

Machinery, farm, 127. 
Magnesium, plant food, 144. 
Manures, 150, 153. 156. 
Map Studies of life a-fleld, 22. 
March on the farm, 181. 
May on the farm, 267. 
Meadows, 320. 
Melons, 240, 243. 
Milk, caring for. 101 ; 

composition of, 104 ; 

testing, 107. 
Modern farm-home conveniences, 

343. 
Mulch, dust, 141. 
Muriate of potash, 152. 

Natural resources. 338. 
Nitrate of soda, 150. 



Nitrogen, 144, 150, 209. 
November on the farm, 67. 
Nut crops, 64. 
Nutrients, 96. 
Nutritive ratio, 93, 95. 

Oats, treatment of, 43. 
October on the farm, 49. 
Onions, 243. 
Orchards, extension of, 57 ; 

planting. 58 ; 

renewing, 222. 
Out-of-door school. 22. 
Oxygen, 144. 

Paris green, 41. 

Pastures, 321. 

Patrons of husbandry, 178. 

Peaches, 59, 61, 221, 330. 

Peas, 243. 

Pecans, 64. 

Perennials, 247, 295, 296. 

Phosphorus, 144, 151. 

Pistil, 289, 290. 

Plant diseases, 42 ; 

foods, 143 ; 

leaves, 286 ; 

propagation, 229. 
Plants and water. 201. 
Potatoes, 279. 
Poultry, 110. 
Products, farm, 50. 
Protein, 92, 93. 
Pruning trees, 221. 
Pupa, 25. 

Radishes, 243. 
Raspberries, 232. 
Rations, balanced, 92 ; 

determining, 95. 
References, list of, 170. 
Roads and road-making, 169, 314. 
Root systems, 205. 
Root hairs. 206. 
Rotation of crops, 213, 214. 
Rural mail delivery, 169. 
Rural progress, 132. 

Sample letter for bulletins, 172. 
San Jose scale, 217. 
School, gardening, 238 ; 

grounds, 244 : 

out-of-door, 22. 
Score card, cattle, 80, 82 ; 

corn, 1 93 ; 

farm, 346; 

hogs, 87 ; 

horses, 73 ; 

sheep, 85. 
Seedlings, growth of, 185. 
Seeds, structure. 181 ; 

germination of, 185 ; 

testing, 197. 
Separator, cream, 100. 



INDEX 



351 



September on the farm, 14. 
Sheep. 83. 
Shrubs, 247. 
Siios, 17, 21. 
Sodium nitrate, 150. 
Soil, capillarity in, 140 ; 

elements of. 135, 150. 

tillage, 272. 
Spray, lime-sulphur, 41, 217, 259. 
Spraying for scale, 217 ; 

for codling moth, 259 ; 

for fungous disease, 259. 
Stamen, 289, 290. 
Starch, as food compound, 94. 
Stock, on the farm, 67 ; 

pure bred, 69. 
Stomata, 287. 
Stooling, 47. 

Sugar, as food compound. 94. 
Suggestions to teachers, 7. 
Sulphur, 144. 
Sweet Potatoes, 243. 

Toad, the farmer's friend, 306. 
Tomato clubs, 283. 



Tomatoes, 243, 283. 
Transpiration, 288. 
Transplanting, 277. 
Tree planting, 248, 255. 
Truck crops, 130, 299. 

Vegetables, 243. 
Variations, 331, 332. 

Walnuts, English, 64. 
Water, supply, 333 ; 

in farm crops, 204 ; 

and the plant, 201. 
Weather service, 335. 
Weeds, 295. 

Weights, for bushel, 189. 
Wheat, composition of the plant. 
146; 

crop, 44. 
Wood, lots, 252 ; 

usage, 249. 
Wool, 83, 85. 
Work shop, 17. 

Tear's account, 121. 



WOV 2 ^^^^ 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



JCV 2 !9n 




Wmmm 



